Powerlines and Cancer FAQs: Bibliography

A1) JG Davis et al: Health Effects of Low-Frequency Electric and Magnetic Fields. Oak Ridge Associated Universities, 1992.
- "...there is no convincing evidence in the published literature to support the contention that exposure to extremely low-frequency electric and magnetic fields generated by sources such as household appliances, video display terminals, and local power lines are demonstrable health hazards."

A2) JA Dennis et al: Human Health and Exposure to Electromagnetic Radiation (NRPB-R241), National Rad Protect Board, Chilton, 1993.
- "the bulk of the evidence points to there being no effects at levels to which people are normally exposed".

A3) P Guenel and J Lellouch: [Synthesis of the literature on health effects from very low frequency electric and magnetic fields], Nat Inst Health Medical Res (INSERM), Paris, 1993.
- "laboratory studies have never shown any carcinogenic effect [but] the epidemiological results presently available do not permit exclusion of a role for magnetic fields in the incidence of leukemia, particularly in children... The effect of magnetic fields on human health remains a research problem. It will only become a public health problem if definite effects are confirmed."

A4) J Roucayrol: [Report on extremely low-frequency electromagnetic fields and health]. Bull Acad Nat Med 177:1031-1040, 1993
- "There is no conclusive evidence linking EMF to reproductive and teratogenic effects, and/or that EMF has a role in the initiation, promotion or progression of certain cancers, even though some data cannot exclude this possibility... reported associations between EMF and certain pathologies like leukemia and other childhood and adult cancers cannot be supported by current epidemiological data."

A5) JE Moulder and KR Foster: Biological effects of power-frequency fields as they relate to carcinogenesis. Proc Soc Exp Med Biol 209:309-324, 1995.
- A peer-reviewed article based on a 1995 version FAQ sheet. See A12 for a later adaptation.

A6) KR Foster and JE Moulder: Questioning biological effects of EMF, In: "IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology, vol 15 (Jul/Aug)", Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, New York, pp. 23-102 (1996).
- A collection of individually authored papers on power-frequency and RF fields and human health, that was edited by the principle authors of this FAQ.

A7) National Research Council (U.S.): Possible health effects of exposure to residential electric and magnetic fields, National Academy Press, Washington, DC, (1996).
- "Based on a comprehensive evaluation of published studies relating to the effects of power frequency electric and magnetic fields on cells, tissues, and organisms (including humans), the conclusion of the committee is that the current body of evidence does not show that exposure to these fields presents a human-health hazard. Specifically, no conclusive and consistent evidence shows that exposures to residential electric and magnetic fields produce cancer, adverse neurobehavioral effects, or reproductive and developmental effects."

A8) R Kavet: EMF and current cancer concepts. Bioelectromag 17:339-357, 1996.
- "Current thinking holds that carcinogenesis is a multi-step process that requires at least two genotoxic events in its critical path but that is facilitated by non-genotoxic proliferative effects on target cells... Effects [of power-frequency fields] relevant to carcinogenesis have not been confirmed, and a mode of action for EMF has not been determined..."

A9) KR Foster et al: Weak electromagnetic fields and cancer In the context of risk assessment. Proc IEEE 85:733-746,1997.
- Review of possible health effects from low-level nonionizing electromagnetic fields from the perspective of cancer risk assessment, including three case histories of issues related to electromagnetic fields and cancer. The authors conclude that: "the evidence in support of links between the fields and cancer is weak and inconsistent. However, in view of the difficulties that are inherent in cancer risk assessment and in proving the negative in general, it is not possible to prove that no such links exist... This conundrum may require a more sophisticated understanding of risk and risk communication by people and organizations that are professionally involved with electrotechnology."

A10) A Lacy-Hulbert et al: Biological responses to electromagnetic fields. FASEB J 12:395-420, 1998.
- "The cumulative evidence... indicates that the epidemiological studies are unable to provide a clear correlation between exposure to [power-frequency fields] and the development of cancers... [This epidemiology] is confounded by the fact that no mechanism is known by which [power-frequency fields] might contribute to tumorigenesis. The latter fact has also contributed to the failure of animal experiments to produce convincing evidence for mutagenic or tumor-promoting effects of [power-frequency fields]... The recurring theme of this review has been the overriding need to demonstrate a single, unequivocal [power-frequency fields]-induced response that will be consistently reproducible in independent laboratories... Until this is achieved, the topic of biological responses to [power-frequency fields] will continue to be regarded with great skepticism in the scientific community at large."

A11) Assessment of Health Effects from Exposure to Power-Line Frequency Electric and Magnetic Fields: Working Group Report, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, NC, 1998.
- Power-frequency fields are a "possible", but not a "probable" carcinogen. See Q27F for details. Also see A16 for a follow-up report.

A12) JE Moulder: Power-frequency fields and cancer. Crit Rev Biomed Eng 26:1-116, 1998.
- Peer-reviewed article based on an early-1998 version of the FAQ.
"The mechanisms of carcinogenesis are sufficiently well established that laboratory studies can be used to assess whether an agent has carcinogenic potential. There are approximately 100 published reports that have looked for evidence that power-frequency fields have genotoxic or epigenetic activity. These studies have found no replicated evidence that power-frequency fields have the potential to either cause or contribute to cancer. Of the few studies that have shown some evidence for carcinogenic activity, most have used exposure conditions with little relevance to real world exposure, none have been replicated, and many have failed direct attempts at replication. In conjunction with the epidemiology and biophysics, this leads to the conclusion that a causal association between power-frequency fields and cancer is not only unproven, but rather unlikely."

A13) J McCann, LI Kheifets et al: Cancer risk assessment of extremely low frequency electric and magnetic fields: A critical review of methodology. Environ Health Perspect 106:701-717, 1998.
- "This review provides a discussion of cancer risk assessment methodology pertinent to developing a strategy for extremely low frequency electric and magnetic fields... The following recommendations are offered:
1) Risk assessment should be viewed as an iterative process that informs an overall judgment as to health risk...
2) a hazard identification resulting in a conclusion of weak or null effects, such as may be associated with [power-frequency fields], will need to assign significant weight to animal cancer bioassays...
3) a default factor to account for possible age differences in sensitivity to carcinogenesis should be included...
4) lack of evidence of dose response and the apparent lack of DNA reactivity of [power-frequency fields] suggest that a safety (or uncertainty) factor or margin of exposure type of risk characterization may be most appropriate
5) risk assessment should permit at least tentative conclusions to be reached as to the limits of carcinogenic risk from exposure to [power-frequency fields], and should also define an efficient research agenda aimed at clarifying uncertainties appropriate to a more complete assessment."

A14) JE Moulder and KR Foster: Is there a link between exposure to power-frequency electric fields and cancer? IEEE Eng Med Biol 18(2):109-116, 1999.
- "Some authors have recently suggested that power-frequency electric rather than magnetic fields might be linked to cancer; for the most part, their conclusion is based on post hoc re-interpretation of existing epidemiologic studies. In this article, we review the evidence bearing on the issue of whether power-frequency electric fields might cause or contribute to cancer... The overall case that power-frequency electric fields are causally linked to human cancer is even weaker than that for magnetic fields, and can reasonably be called nonexistent... Needless to say, our society has many urgent health problems, but to all appearances cancer from power line fields is not one of them."

A15) National Research Council. Research on Power-Frequency Fields Under the Energy Policy Act of 1992. Nation Academy Press, Washington, DC, 1999.
- "The results of the EMF-RAPID program do not support the contention that the use of electricity poses a major unrecognized public-health danger. Basic research on the effects of power-frequency magnetic fields should continue, but a special research funding effort is not required." See also: A18

A16) Health Effects from Exposure to Power-Line Frequency Electric and Magnetic Fields: National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, NC, 1999.
- "The scientific evidence suggesting that [power-frequency electromagnetic field] exposures pose any health risk is weak". See Q27G for details. The report is available at: http://www.niehs.nih.gov/emfrapid/html/EMF_DIR_RPT/Report_18f.htm

A17) Committee on Man and Radiation: Possible health hazards from exposure to power-frequency electric and magnetic fields- A COMAR Technical Information Statement. IEEE Eng Med Biol 19(1):131-137, 2000.
- "After examination of relevant research reports published during the last ten years, COMAR concludes that it is highly unlikely that health problems can be associated with average 24-hour field exposure to power frequency magnetic fields of less than 1 milliT. Good laboratory evidence shows that magnetic fields 100 to 10,000 times higher than this level, either ELF sinusoidal or pulsed, can induce a variety of biological effects... Many of the reports of effects of weaker fields should be considered preliminary, as some observations have not been reproduced in different laboratories, while others, observed in cells, have not been clearly connected to effects in intact animals. Also, the means of interaction of low-level ELF fields with cells, tissues or laboratory animals is not fully understood; therefore the health impacts of such weak fields on intact animals and humans, if any, cannot be predicted or explained."
Full text on the net at: http://homepage.seas.upenn.edu/~kfoster/powerfreq.htm

A18) JE Moulder: The Electric and Magnetic Fields Research and Public Information Dissemination (EMF-RAPID) Program. Radiat Res 153:613-616,2000.
- In the US, public concern that exposure to power-line fields was linked to cancer led to the establishment of a Congressionally mandated program, the Electric and Magnetic Fields Research and Public Information Dissemination (EMF-RAPID) Program. Much of the work funded by the EMF-RAPID program has not yet been published in the peer-reviewed literature. The U.S. National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) asked that Radiation Research publish a special issue in an attempt to remedy this publication gap. This is the introduction to that special issue. See also: H55-H58, J17, K8-K10.

A19) AW Preece, JW Hand et al: Power frequency electromagnetic fields and health. Where's the evidence? Phys Med Biol 45:R139-R154, 2000.
- A review of the power-line cancer controversy concludes that: "No associations have been shown between laboratory magnetic field exposures and carcinogenesis in either animal or cellular models. Indeed, studies have demonstrated that magnetic fields are not associated with cancer. However, the puzzle remains that the results of some epidemiological studies may be interpreted as suggesting that living close to high-voltage transmission lines appears to slightly increase the risk of childhood leukemia."

A20) ELF Electromagnetic Fields and the Risk of Cancer. Doc NRPB, 12, 2001.
- "Laboratory experiments have provided no good evidence that extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields are capable of producing cancer, nor do human epidemiological studies suggest that they cause cancer in general. There is, however, some epidemiological evidence that prolonged exposure to higher levels of power frequency magnetic fields is associated with a small risk of leukaemia in children. In practice, such levels of exposure are seldom encountered by the general public in the UK. In the absence of clear evidence of a carcinogenic effect in adults, or of a plausible explanation from experiments on animals or isolated cells, the epidemiological evidence is currently not strong enough to justify a firm conclusion that such fields cause leukaemia in children. Unless, however, further research indicates that the finding is due to chance or some currently unrecognized artifact, the possibility remains that intense and prolonged exposures to magnetic fields can increase the risk of leukaemia in children."

B1) M Coleman and V Beral: A review of epidemiological studies of the health effects of living near or working with electrical generation and transmission equipment. Int J Epidem 17:1-13, 1988.
- Review of both occupational and residential studies, including meta-analysis showing a small excess incidence of leukemia in electrical occupations.

B2) GB Hutchison: Cancer and exposure to electric power. Health Environ Digest 6:1-4, 1992.
- Meta-analysis of residential exposure studies shows an excess incidence of childhood brain cancer, but not of childhood leukemia or lymphoma. Analysis also shows an excess of leukemia and brain cancer in electrical occupations, but no significant excess of lymphoma or overall cancer.

B3) R Doll et al, Electromagnetic Fields and the Risk of Cancer, NRPB, Chilton, 1992.
- A review of both ELF and RF frequencies that includes a meta-analysis of the childhood cancer data. For leukemia, the analysis shows an elevated incidence for wire codes, but not for proximity or measured fields. For brain cancer, the analysis shows an elevated incidence for wire codes and proximity, but not for measured fields. For all childhood cancer the analysis shows an elevated incidence for wire codes and measured fields, but not for proximity.

B4) A Ahlbom et al: Electromagnetic fields and childhood cancer. Lancet 343:1295-1296, 1993.
- Pooled analysis of the Scandinavian childhood cancer studies indicates that if calculated historic power-line fields are used as a measure of exposure, a small increase is seen in the incidence of leukemia, but no statistically significant increase is seen in the incidence of CNS cancer, lymphoma, or overall cancer.

B5) EP Washburn et al: Residential proximity to electrical transmission and distribution equipment and the risk of childhood leukemia, childhood lymphoma, and childhood nervous system tumors: Systematic review, evaluation, and meta-analysis. Cancer Causes Control 5:229-309, 1994.
- Meta-analysis of the childhood cancer - power line studies that reports an elevation in leukemia and brain cancer, but not lymphoma. Only proximity is used as the index of exposure.

B6) LI Kheifets et al: Occupational electric and magnetic field exposure and brain cancer: A meta-analysis. J Occup Environ Med 37:1327-1341, 1995.
- This meta-analysis finds a relative risk of 1.2 for brain cancer in electrical occupations. RRs were elevated for studies done in the US, but not for those done in the Nordic counties. Electrical engineers have one of the highest RRs, despite being a group that generally shows low exposures. The authors state that "because of the lack of exposure information and a clear dose response pattern, it is not possible to conclude that EMF is causally associated with the observed excess of brain cancer".

B7) L Hardell et al: Exposure to extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields and the risk of malignant diseases -- an evaluation of epidemiological and experimental findings. Eur J Cancer Prev 4 (Suppl. 1):3-107, 1995.
- "There is no scientific basis for occupational or environmental standard setting for low frequency electric or magnetic fields..."

B8) R Meinert and F Michaelis: Meta-analysis of studies of the association between electromagnetic fields and childhood cancer. Rad Environ Biophys 35:11-18, 1996.
- Overall childhood cancer shows a "marginal association" with exposures assessed by wire codes, proximity and measured/calculated fields. For individual cancers the results are highly variable and depend on the exposure metric. The authors note that "one possible explanation for the high degree of heterogeneity between studies... could be that the published cut-points were not always chosen in advance, but were selected because... the most striking results were obtained with these specific cut-off values. Should this speculation be true at least partially, any meta-analysis will yield a false-positive finding."

B9) C Poole and D Ozonoff: Magnetic fields and childhood cancer: an investigation of dose response analyses. IEEE Eng Med Biol 15 (Jul/Aug):41-49, 1996.
- "the existing epidemiologic data on EMF and childhood cancer show evidence of dose-response... The trends are stronger for leukemia than for brain cancer"

B10) CY Li et al: Epidemiological appraisal of studies of residential exposure to power frequency magnetic fields and adult cancers. Occup Environ Med 53:505-510, 1996.
- A review of the literature on residential exposure to power line fields and adult cancer. The authors conclude that "the evidence is not strong enough to support the putative causal relationship between residential exposure to magnetic fields and adult leukemia ,brain tumors or breast cancer". The author emphasizes that the studies conducted to date have had relatively low statistical power.

B11) M Feychting: Occupational exposure to electromagnetic fields and adult leukaemia: a review of the epidemiological evidence. Rad Environ Biophys 35:237-242, 1996.
- Review of occupational studies of power-frequency fields and leukemia though 1995. The author concludes that "there is some evidence for an association between occupational magnetic field exposure and leukemia, especially for chronic lymphocytic leukemia, but inconsistencies between and within studies weaken the evidence. Currently, no firm conclusion can be drawn."

B12) G Theriault et al: Risk of leukemia among residents close to high voltage transmission electric lines. Occup Environ Med 54:625-628, 1997.
- Meta-analysis of studies of residential exposure and leukemia done after Tynes et al ('97) [C33], but prior to Linet et al ('97) [C35]. Children and adults are combined in the analysis. Because of the nature of the analysis the results are totally dominated by the authors' own study, Li et al ('97) [C32]. The analysis shows RRs of 1.3 to 1.8 for residence within 50 meters of high-voltage lines and for calculated fields greater than 0.2 microT. No dose-response is evident for either distance or calculated fields.

B13) RD Miller et al: Brain cancer and leukemia and exposure to power-frequency (50- to 60-Hz) electric and magnetic fields. Epidem Rev 19:273-293, 1997.
- For neither cancers of the central nervous system nor leukemia can we conclude at this time that strong evidence exists for an association with electric and magnetic fields in the occupational setting. Studies of environmental exposure to electric and magnetic fields and cancer show weak evidence for an association with childhood leukemia and possibly childhood brain cancer. The most recent studies do not support the brain cancer link and weaken the leukemia link. Among adults, the environmental studies do not confirm the weak evidence from occupational studies..."

B14) D Wartenberg: Residential magnetic fields and childhood leukemia: a meta-analysis. Amer J Public Health 88:1787-1794, 1998.
- See B20 for an up-dated analysis by this author.

B15) LI Kheifets and CC Matkin: Industrialization, electromagnetic fields, and breast cancer risk. Environ Health Perspec 107 (Suppl. 1):145-154, 1999.
- A review of the hypothesis that the increase in female breast cancer in the industrialized world might be related to exposure to power-frequency fields or light-at-night. The authors conclude that "most of the epidemiologic data do not provide strong support for an association between [power-frequency fields] and cancer, but because of the limited statistical power... it is not possible to rule out a relationship..." The authors recommend that future studies have sufficient statistical power to detect small effects, be based on comprehensive exposure assessment, and pay careful attention of menopausal and estrogen receptor status.

B16) GC Brainard, R Kavet et al: The relationship between electromagnetic field and light exposures to melatonin and breast cancer risk: A review of the relevant literature. J Pineal Res 26:65-100, 1999.
- A review of the hypothesis that the increase in female breast cancer in the industrialized world might be related to exposure to power-frequency fields or light-at-night. The authors conclude that "based on the public data it is currently unclear if [power-frequency fields] and electric light exposure are significant risk factors for breast cancer."

B17) LI Kheifets, ES Gilbert et al: Comparative analyses of the studies of magnetic fields and cancer in electric utility workers: studies from France, Canada, and the United States. Occup Environ Med 56:567-574, 1999.
- Comparison of three previously-published studies of electric utility workers that examined the relation between occupational exposure to power-frequency magnetic fields and risk of brain cancer and leukaemia. The authors report that apparent inconsistencies in the findings of these studies can be explained by statistical variation. Overall, the studies suggest a small, but non-significant, increase in risk of both brain cancer and leukaemia.

B18) IF Angelillo and P Villari: Residential exposure to electromagnetic fields and childhood leukaemia: a meta-analysis. Bull World Health Organ 77:906-915,1999.
- Meta-analysis of childhood leukemia and exposure to power-frequency fields. Does not include the UK Childhood Cancer study [C49], Green et al [C45, C46], or McBride et al [C44]. The authors report slightly elevated risks (relative risks between 1.1 and 1.6) for all measures of exposure (wire codes, distances, 24-hr average measurements, spot measurements and calculated magnetic fields), but that the elevations were only significant for wire codes and 24-hr field measurements. These significant elevations appear to lose their statistical significance when the newer (1999) studies are added.

B19) LI Kheifets: Electric and magnetic field exposure and brain cancer: A review. Bioelectromag Suppl 5:S120-S131, 2001.
- "Studies of residential exposure and childhood brain tumors have produced inconsistent results...[and] most recent studies provide little evidence of an association... In adults, residential studies have found little or no association between electric and magnetic fields and brain cancer.... A meta-analysis of occupational studies indicates a slightly higher relative risk for electrical workers. A comparative analysis of the major studies of electric utility workers also suggests a small increase in brain cancer risk. Of note in these analyses are large exposure misclassifications and the lack of clear dose-response in most individual studies."

B20) D Wartenberg: Residential EMF exposure and childhood leukemia: Meta-analysis and population attributable risk. Bioelectromag Suppl 5:S86-S104, 2001.
- A review of previous meta-analyses of residential exposure to magnetic fields and childhood leukemia concludes that "If an association exists, as many as 175-240 cases of childhood leukemia in the US may be due to magnetic field exposure."

B21) TC Erren: A meta-analysis of epidemiologic studies of electric and magnetic fields and breast cancer in women and men. Bioelectromag Suppl 5:S105-S119, 2001.
- A review of 43 publications that provide information about associations between exposure to electric and magnetic fields and risks of breast cancer. The authors report that the pooled studies show a small increase in breast cancer risk in both mean and women, but that "results from individual studies are very variable and in part contradictory".

C1) N Wertheimer and E Leeper: Electrical wiring configurations and childhood cancer. Am J Epidem 109:273-284, 1979.
- Case-control study of childhood leukemia and brain cancer using type of power lines (wire codes) as an index of exposure. An excess incidence of leukemia and brain cancer were reported.

C2) N Wertheimer and E Leeper: Adult cancer related to electrical wires near the home. Int J Epidem 11:345-355, 1982.
- Case-control study of adult cancer. An excess incidence was reported for total cancer and brain cancer, but not for leukemia.

C3) JP Fulton et al: Electrical wiring configurations and childhood leukemia in Rhode Island. Am J Epidem 111:292-296, 1980.
- Case-control study using wire-dose as an index of exposure. No excess of child leukemia was found.

C4) ME McDowall: Mortality of persons resident in the vicinity of electrical transmission facilities. Br J Cancer 53:271-279, 1986.
- Standardized mortality ratio study of persons in the UK living within 50 m of a substation or 30 m of a transmission line. No increase in overall cancer, leukemia, or female breast cancer.

C5) L Tomenius: 50-Hz electromagnetic environment and the incidence of childhood tumors in Stockholm County. Bioelectromag 7:191-207, 1986.
- Case-control study of childhood cancer using proximity to electrical equipment as indices of exposure. Proximity to 200 kV lines was associated with an excess of total cancer, but proximity to other types of electrical equipment carried no excess risk. No excess incidence of leukemia or brain cancer was reported for any index of exposure.

C6) DA Savitz et al: Case-control study of childhood cancer and exposure to 60-Hz magnetic fields. Am J Epidem 128:21-38, 1988.
- Case-control study of childhood leukemia and brain cancer, using measurements and wire codes as indices of exposure. An excess incidence of leukemia was found for high-current-configuration wire codes, but not for measured magnetic or electric fields. An excess incidence of brain cancer was found for high-current-configuration wire codes, but not for measured fields. Measured magnetic fields were loosely correlated with wire codes, but measured electric fields were not.

C7) RK Severson et al: Acute nonlymphocytic leukemia and residential exposure to power-frequency magnetic fields. Am J Epidem 128:10-20, 1988.
- Case-control study of adult leukemia in Washington state, using measurements and wire codes as indices of exposure. No excess leukemia for wire codes or measured fields.

C8) S Preston-Martin et al: Myelogenous leukemia and electric blanket use. Bioelectromag 9:207-213, 1988.
- Electric blanket use increases electric field exposure by 35 (20-100)% and magnetic field exposure by 80 (40-300)%. A case-control study showed no excess of either acute or chronic myeloid leukemia.

C9) MP Coleman et al: Leukemia and residence near electricity transmission equipment: a case-control study. Br J Cancer 60:793-798, 1989.
- Case-control study of childhood and adult leukemia, using proximity to power lines and transformers as an exposure index. No excess of leukemia was found.

C10) A Myers et al: Childhood cancer and overhead powerlines: a case-control study. Br J Cancer 62:1008-1014, 1990.
- Case-control study of childhood leukemia, using proximity to power lines as an exposure index. No excess of leukemia, solid tumors or total cancer was found.

C11) DA Savitz et al: Magnetic field exposure from electric appliances and childhood cancer. Amer J Epidem 131:763-773, 1990.
- A case-control study of cancer and appliance use. For prenatal use of electric blankets, an excess incidence of brain cancer was found; but no significant increase in leukemia or overall cancer was seen. No increased cancer incidence was found for postnatal use of electric blankets or other electric appliances.

C12) SJ London et al: Exposure to residential electric and magnetic fields and risk of childhood leukemia. Am J Epidem 134:923-937, 1991.
- Case-control study of childhood leukemia in Los Angeles, using measurements and wire codes as indices of exposure. An excess incidence of leukemia was found for high current configuration wire codes, but no excess risk was found for measured electric or magnetic fields. Measured magnetic fields were loosely correlated with wire codes, but measured electric fields were not.

C13) JHAM Youngson et al: A case/control study of adult haematological malignancies in relation to overhead powerlines. Br J Cancer 63:977-985, 1991.
- Case-control study of adult leukemia and lymphoma using proximity to power lines and estimated fields as measures of exposure. No excess incidence of cancer found.

C15) JM Peters et al: Exposure to residential electric and magnetic fields and risk of childhood leukemia. Rad Res 133:131-132, 1993.
- Discussion of the implications of finding a correlation of cancer with wire-codes, but not with measured fields. There could be a true association masked by a methodological bias in the measurement technique. There could be a true association, but average and/or spot fields might not be the correct exposure metric. There might be selection bias in the control group or a confounder.

C16) PJ Verkasalo et al: Risk of cancer in Finnish children living close to power lines. BMJ 307:895-899, 1993.
- A study of cancer in children living within 500 m of high-voltage lines, with calculated retrospective fields used to define exposure. The incidence of childhood cancer was not elevated for average exposure above 0.20 microT, or cumulative exposure above 0.50 microT-yrs. A possible excess of brain cancer was found in boys. No excess incidence was found for brain tumors in girls or for leukemia, lymphomas or other cancers in either sex.

C17) JH Olsen et al: Residence near high voltage facilities and risk of cancer in children. BMJ 307:891-895, 1993.
- A study of childhood leukemia, brain tumors and lymphomas. Exposure was assessed on the basis of calculated fields over the period from conception to diagnosis. No overall increase in cancer was found when 0.25 microT was used to define exposure, but the overall incidence of childhood cancer was elevated if 0.40 microT was used. No significant increase was found for leukemia, brain cancer or lymphoma incidence.

C18) GH Schreiber et al: Cancer mortality and residence near electricity transmission equipment: A retrospective cohort study. Int J Epidem 22:9-15, 1993.
- A study of people in an urban area in the Netherlands. People were considered exposed if they lived within 100 meters of 150 kV lines or substations. Fields in the exposed group were 0.1-1.1 microT, fields in the unexposed group were 0.02-0.15 microT. The total cancer incidence in the exposed group was less than that in the general Dutch population. No cases of leukemia or brain cancer were seen in the exposed group.

C19) M Feychting and A Ahlbom: Magnetic fields and cancer in children residing near Swedish high-voltage Power Lines. Am J Epidem 7:467-481, 1993.
- A study of children who lived within 300 m of high-voltage power lines. Exposure assessed by measurements, calculated retrospective assessments, and distance from lines. No overall increase in cancer was found for any measure of exposure. An increase in leukemia (but not brain or other cancers) was found in children in one-family homes for fields calculated to have been 0.2 microT or above at the time of cancer diagnosis, and for residence within 50 m of the power line. No increase in cancer was found for measured fields.

C20) TL Jones et al: Selection bias from differential residential mobility as an explanation for associations of wire codes with childhood cancer. J Clin Epidem 46:545-548, 1993.
- The type of "high current configuration" distribution lines associated with cancer in the Wertheimer [C1], Savitz [C6] and London [C12] studies were more common in residential areas that were older, poorer, and which contained more rental properties. This could lead to a false association of high current configurations with disease.

C20a) E Petridou et al: Age of exposure to infections and risk of childhood leukemia, Brit Med J 307:774, 1993.
- Case-control study suggesting that "early attendance at crèches reduces the risk of childhood leukemia, presumably by reducing the age of exposure to infectious agents". Also reports that living within 100 m of a substation or less than 5 m from a power line was not associated with excess childhood leukemia.

C21) M Feychting and A Ahlbom: Magnetic fields, leukemia, and central nervous system tumors in Swedish adults residing near high-voltage power lines, Epidemiology 5:501-509, (1994).
- A study of adults who lived within 300 m of high-voltage power lines. No increased leukemia or brain cancer was found for adults when exposure was based on measured fields, distance from power lines or retrospective field calculations.

C22) RH Lovely et al: Adult leukemia risk and personal appliance use: a preliminary study. Amer J Epidem 140:510-517, 1994.
- A study of adult acute nonlymphocytic leukemia and use of electric razors, hair dryers, and massage units. Use of these appliances was not associated with increased leukemia. There was an excess of leukemia in users of massage units, and a decrease in leukemia in users of hair dryers.

C23) JE Vena et al: Risk of premenopausal breast cancer and use of electric blankets. Amer J Epidem 140:974-979, 1994.
- Case-control study of breast cancer in premenopausal women who used electric blankets. No increased incidence of breast cancer was seen in electric blanket users.

C24) JD Sahl: Viral contacts confound studies of childhood leukemia and high-voltage transmission lines. Cancer Causes Control 5:279-283, 1994.
- "This paper elaborates on the hypothesis that residential proximity to electric utility transmission systems is a surrogate for viral contacts... The assumption made here is that a significant component of childhood leukemia has an infectious etiology. Increased viral contacts can result from residential mobility..."

C25) JG Gurney et al: Childhood cancer occurrence in relation to power line configurations: A study of potential selection bias in case-control studies. Epidemiology 6:31-35, 1995.
- The type of electrical wiring ("wire codes") was found to be correlated with income, with high current configurations being more common in families with lower incomes. As low income families are generally less likely to agree to participate as controls, this would introduce a bias in relative risk estimates from case-control of up to 1.2

C26) M Feychting and A Ahlbom: Re "Magnetic fields and cancer in children residing near Swedish high-voltage power lines:" Authors' reply (letter). Amer J Epidem 141:378-379, 1995.
- In response to a letter questioning the statistical significance of their results [C19,C21]: "we have not referred to statistical significance anywhere in our paper, so this [the issue of statistical significance] would only be a problem for those readers who try to interpret the location of our confidence boundaries in terms of presence or absence of statistical significance..."

C26a) M Feychting et al: Magnetic fields and childhood cancer -- a pooled analysis of two Scandinavian studies, Eur J Cancer 31A:2035-2039, 1995.
- Childhood cancer data from the Feychting and Ahlbom [C19] and Olsen et al [C17] studies was pooled. Only historic calculated fields were analyzed. Multiple cut-points were analyzed for leukemia, brain cancer, lymphoma and for the three sites combined. A total of 24 RRs are calculated for the combined data, of which 3 (all for childhood leukemia) have 95% confidence intervals above 1; the median RR is 1.3 and the 10-90% range is 0.8-3.4. "The potential public health impact of exposure to magnetic fields is not possible to assess... Restricting discussion to childhood leukemia and to exposure from high voltage installations limits the effect on public health to less than one extra case per year in Sweden and Denmark".

C27) JD Bowman et al: Hypothesis: The risk of childhood leukemia is related to combinations of power-frequency and static magnetic fields. Bioelectromag 16:48-59, 1995.
- The authors hypothesize that the risk of childhood leukemia is related to specific combinations of static (geomagnetic) and ELF fields.

C28) JG Gurney et al: Childhood brain tumor occurrence in relation to residential power line configurations, electric heating sources, and electric appliance use. Amer J Epidem 143:120-128, 1996.
- A study of childhood brain cancer which finds no association of brain cancer with residence near powerlines power lines (based on wire codes). The study also found no association of brain cancer incidence with childhood or fetal exposure to fields from electrical appliances.

C29) S Preston-Martin et al: Los Angeles study of residential magnetic fields and childhood brain tumors. Amer J Epidem 143:105-119, 1996.
- A study of childhood brain cancer and residential exposure to power-line fields. No association was found between brain cancer risk and measured fields, wire codes or appliance use.

C30) S Preston-Martin et al: Brain tumor risk in children in relation to use of electric blankets and water bed heaters. Amer J Epidem 143:1116-1122, 1996.
- A case-control study of the association of childhood brain tumors with exposure to electric blankets and electrically-heated water beds. Both maternal exposure during pregnancy and exposure during childhood were evaluated. No significant associations were observed.

C31) PK Verkasalo et al: Magnetic fields of high voltage power lines and risk of cancer in Finnish adults: nationwide cohort studies. Br Med J 313:1047-1051, 1996.
- Study of adults living within 500 meters of high-voltage powerlines that parallels the 1993 study of children [C16]. Exposures were calculated from historic power line historic records, and ignore all sources other than 110kV and above powerlines. RRs were calculated for 5 exposure ranges and 22 types of cancer (plus total cancer). No "significantly" elevated risks were found for any type of cancer in either of the highest exposure groups. According to the authors, "The results of the present study suggest strongly that typical residential magnetic fields generated by high voltage powerlines are not related to cancer in adults".

C32) CY Li et al: Residential exposure to 60-Hertz magnetic fields and adult cancers in Taiwan. Epidemiology 8:25-30, 1997.
- Case-control study of residential exposure to power line fields and adult leukemia, brain cancer and female breast cancer. Exposure were calculated on the basis of distance from transmission lines and their maximum loads, other sources of fields were not taken into account. Based on distance alone (less than 50 meters vs 100+ meters) or calculated transmission line fields (greater than 0.2 microT vs less than 0.1 microT), the incidence of adult leukemia was increased. The incidence of adult brain cancer and female breast cancer were not elevated for any measure of exposure.

C33) T Tynes et al: Electromagnetic fields and cancer in children residing near Norwegian high-voltage power lines. Amer J Epidem 145:219-226, 1997.
- Case-control study of children living near high-voltage powerlines. Exposures were based on distances or historic field reconstructions. Sources of exposure other than high-voltage powerlines were not taken into account. No associations with distance, calculated magnetic fields or calculated electric fields were found for leukemia, brain tumors, lymphoma, other sites, or for overall cancer.

C34) J Michaelis et al: Combined risk estimates for two German population-based case-control studies on residential magnetic fields and childhood acute leukemia. Epidem 9:92-94, 1998.
- Case-control study of childhood leukemia and measured exposure to power-line magnetic fields. For 24-hr average exposures in excess of 0.2 microT there was a non-significant excess incidence of childhood leukemia.

C35) MS Linet et al: Residential exposure to magnetic fields and acute lymphoblastic leukemia in children. New Eng J Med 337:1-7, 1997.
- A case-control study of childhood leukemia. No association of childhood leukemia with measured fields or wire codes was found. This is the largest such study to date.

C36) EW Campion: Power lines, cancer, and fear. New Eng J Med 337:44-46, 1997
- Editorial accompanying Linet et al [C35]

C37) EE Hatch et al: Association between childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia and use of electrical appliances during pregnancy and childhood. Epidemiology 9:234-245, 1998.
- Case-control study of 640 cases of childhood leukemia, and use of electrical appliances during pregnancy and childhood. Sixteen different types of appliances were considered (everything from electric blankets to video games) and no consistent pattern of association with childhood leukemia was seen.

C38) M Feychting et al: Magnetic fields and breast cancer in Swedish adults residing near high-voltage power lines. Epidemiology 9:392-397, 1998
- Case control study of residential exposure and breast cancer. Exposure estimates based on historic field reconstructions. No significant associations were found for either male or female breast cancer.

C39) MD Gammon et al: Electric blanket use and breast cancer risk among younger women. Amer J Epidem 148:556-563, 1998.
- Case-control study of electric blankets and the risk of female breast cancer in patients who were under age 55 years and had been newly diagnosed with breast cancer. There was little or no risk associated with ever having used electric blankets, mattress pads, or heated water beds.

C40) MB Bracken et al: Correlates of residential wiring code used in studies of health effects of residential electromagnetic fields. Amer J Epidem 148:467-474, 1998.
- Houses with high wire-codes differed significantly from those with low wire-codes. "The association of wiring code with housing characteristics and traffic density are sufficiently strong that they could confound the relatively modest associations which most studies have observed between wiring code and cancer".

C41) PF Coogan et al: Exposure to power-frequency magnetic fields and risk of breast cancer in the Upper Cape Cod cancer incidence study. Arch Environ Health 53:359-367, 1998.
- A case-control study of breast cancer and exposure to power-frequency fields found no significant associations with: holding a job with high exposure, living in an electrically-heated home, sleeping with an electric blanket, or living with 150 m of a transmission line or substation.

C42) RW Coghill, J Steward et al: Extra low frequency electric and magnetic fields in the bedplace of children diagnosed with leukemia: A case-control study. Eur J Cancer Prev 5:153-158, 1996.
- Case-control study of childhood leukemia found measured electric fields higher in cases (14±14 V/m) than controls (7±3 V/m). Magnetic fields were not different between cases (.07 microT) and controls (.06 microT). The authors state that there were "imperfections in the study design".

C42A) K Zhu, NS Weiss et al: Prostate cancer in relation to the use of electric blanket or heated water bed. Epidemiology 10:83-85, 1998.
- Case-control study of use of electric blankets and electric water beds and prostate cancer found that the incidence of prostate cancer was not significantly elevated, and that there was no increase in risk with increased duration of exposure.

C43) E Petridou, D Trichopoulos et al: Electrical power lines and childhood leukemia: a study from Greece. Int J Cancer 73:345-348, 1997.
- A case-control study of residential proximity to electrical power lines and childhood leukemia in Greece. The study comprised 117 cases of childhood leukemia and 202 matched controls. Four measures of exposure to magnetic fields were developed: Voltage (V) divided by the distance (d), V/d^2, V/d^3 and an adaptation of the Wertheimer-Leeper code. No significant trends of childhood leukemia risk with increasing exposure levels were noted, nor were there statistically significant elevations of disease risk at the higher exposure levels in each measure of exposure.

C44) ML McBride, RP Gallagher et al: Power-frequency electric and magnetic fields and risk of childhood leukemia in Canada. Amer J Epidem 149:831-842, 1999.
- Canadian case-control study of childhood leukemia and exposure to power-frequency electric and magnetic fields. Exposure assessment included: 48-hour personal electric and magnetic field measurements, wire coding and magnetic field measurements for subjects' residences from conception to diagnosis/reference date. Measured residential and personal magnetic fields were not related to the incidence of leukemia. There was no association of leukemia incidence with predicted magnetic field exposure 2 years before the diagnosis or over the subject's lifetime. There was no association of leukemia incidence with electric field exposure.

C45) LM Green, AB Miller et al: A case-control study of childhood leukemia in southern Ontario, Canada, and exposure to magnetic fields in residences. Int J Cancer 82:161-170, 1999.
- Case-control study in Canada to assess the relation between the risk of childhood leukemia and residential exposure to magnetic fields. Wire codes and measurement inside the residences showed no significant association with leukemia, but measurements external to the residence were associated with increased leukemia incidence. The authors conclude that their: "findings did not support an association between leukemia and proximity to power lines with high current configuration."

C46) LM Green, AB Miller et al: Childhood leukemia and personal monitoring of residential exposures to electric and magnetic fields in Ontario, Canada. Cancer Causes Control 10:233-243, 1999.
- In a subset of the study described in C44, exposure was also measured by a personal monitoring device worn by the child during usual activities at home, by measurements in three rooms, and by wire code. An association was observed between magnetic fields measured with the personal monitor and an increased incidence of leukemia. Electric fields measured by the personal monitors were not associated with leukemia incidence. Wire codes and magnetic fields measured in the rooms were not significantly associated with increased leukemia incidence.

C47) M Wrensch, MG Yost et al: Adult glioma in relation to residential power frequency electromagnetic field exposures in the San Francisco Bay area. Epidemiology 10:532-537, 1999.
The study examined residential power frequency electromagnetic field exposures for adults newly diagnosed brain tumors in San Francisco Bay. Exposure assessment was based on spot measurements and wire codes. For high wire codes the incidence of brain cancer was not elevated. For spot measurements above 0.3 microT there was an insignificant elevation of brain cancer incidence.

C48) JD Dockerty, JM Elwood et al: Electromagnetic field exposures and childhood leukaemia in New Zealand. Lancet 354:1967, 1999.
- Case-control study in New Zealand finds no significant association of childhood leukemia with measured power-frequency electric or magnetic fields.

C49) UK Childhood Cancer Study Investigators: Exposure to power-frequency magnetic fields and the risk of childhood cancer. Lancet 354:1925-1931, 1999.
- Large case-control study in the U.K. finds no association of childhood leukemia, childhood brain cancer or overall childhood cancer with measured power-frequency magnetic fields.

C50) MH Repacholi and A Ahlbom: Link between electromagnetic fields and childhood cancer unresolved. Lancet 354:1918, 1999.
- The commentary accompanying the UK childhood leukemia study [C49] , argues that the UK study is not "definitive" because it did not assess "transients", because only a relatively small number of children were found who were exposed to average fields above 0.4 microT, and because the study was not big enough to detect a very weak association.

C51) J Dockerty, JM Elwood et al: Electromagnetic field exposures and childhood cancers in New Zealand. Cancer Causes Control 9:299-309, 1998.
- Case-control study of childhood cancer in New Zealand. Mother's use of appliances was not associated with subsequent childhood leukemia, brain cancer or other cancers. Child's' use of appliances was not significantly associated with cancer, except for electric blanket use and cancers other than leukemia and brain cancer. For children, electric heating was associated with cancer if the heating was in the day-use rooms, but not if it was in the bedroom. Measured magnetic (but not electric) fields were associated with leukemia, but there was no dose-response trend. This is the complete version of the study summarized in [C48].

C52) UM Forssén, M Feychting et al: Occupational and residential magnetic field exposure and breast cancer in females. Epidem 11:24-29, 2000.
- Case-control study of female breast cancer and residential and occupational exposure to power-frequency fields. The incidence of breast cancer was not elevated for occupational exposure, for residential exposure, or for a combination of residential and occupational exposures.

C53) RA Kleinerman, WT Kaune et al: Are children living near high-voltage power lines at increased risk of acute lymphoblastic leukemia? Amer J Epidemiol 151:212-215,2000.
- Distance from transmission lines or three-phase distribution lines is not a risk factor for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia

C54) A Ahlbom, N Day et al: A pooled analysis of magnetic fields and childhood leukaemia, Brit J Cancer 83:692-698, 2000.
- A pooled analysis based on individual records from nine previous studies, limited to those with 24/48-hour magnetic field measurements or calculated magnetic fields. For estimated residential magnetic field exposures levels below 0.4 microT the authors report risk estimates near the no effect level. For the 44 children with leukaemia and 62 control children with estimated residential magnetic field exposures above 0.4 microT the relative risk of leukemia was doubled and the effect appeared to be statistically significant. For American subjects whose residences were in the highest wire code category, no significant elevation or leukemia incidence was observed. According to the authors, "the 99.2% of children residing in homes with exposure levels below 0.4 microT had no increased risk, while the 0.8% of children with exposures greater than 0.4 microT had a relative risk estimate of approximately 2, which is unlikely to be due to random variability. The explanation for the elevated risk is unknown, but selection bias may have accounted for some of the increase."

C55) F Laden, LM Neas et al: Electric blanket use and breast cancer in the nurses' health study, Amer J Epidem 152:41-49, 2000.
- No significant association of electric blanket use and female breast cancer.

C56) T Zheng, TR Holford et al: Exposure to electromagnetic fields from use of electric blankets and other in-home electrical appliances and breast cancer risk, Am J Epidemiol 151:1103-1111, 2000.
- No association of use of electric blankets (or other household appliances) and female breast cancer.

C57) S Greenland, AR Sheppard et al: A pooled analysis of magnetic fields, wirecodes, and childhood leukemia. Epidemiology 11:624-634, 2000.
- A pooled analysis of data from 15 studies of childhood leukemia and residential exposure to powerline fields. Magnetic fields were estimated where the study did not measure them. No association with childhood leukemia was seen for fields of less than 3 microT. For field strengths above 0.3 microT the relative risk of leukemia was increased and the effect appeared to be statistically significant. According to the authors "the results suggest that appreciable magnetic field effects, if any, may be concentrated among relatively high and uncommon exposures."

C58) UK Childhood Cancer Study Investigators: Childhood cancer and residential proximity to power lines. Brit J Cancer 83:1573-1580, 2000.
- In an extension of their earlier study [C49], the investigators found no association of childhood leukemia, childhood brain cancer or overall childhood cancer with residence near all types of power-frequency sources (high-voltage powerlines plus underground cables, substations, distribution lines). No association was seen for either proximity (less than 50 m) or calculated magnetic fields.

C59) J Schüz, JP Grigat et al: Residential magnetic fields as a risk factor for childhood acute leukaemia: Results from a German population-based case-control study. Int J Cancer 91:728-735, 2001.
- Case-control study of childhood leukemia in Germany. Childhood leukemia incidence was slightly (but non-significantly) increased in children with 24-hour measured fields of 0.2 microT or greater, with a non-significant dose trend. When this study was pooled with previous German studies[C34], the increase for 0.4 microT and above was statistically significant.

D1) S Milham: Mortality from leukemia in workers exposed to electrical and magnetic fields (letter). NEJM 307:249, 1982.
- Proportional mortality study of electrical occupations showing an excess incidence of leukemia in some occupations. No exposure measurements or estimates were made.

D2) WE Wright et al: Leukaemia in workers exposed to electrical and magnetic fields (letter). Lancet 8308 (Vol II):1160-1161, 1982.
- Proportional incidence study of electrical occupations showing an excess of acute, but not chronic leukemia in some occupations. No exposure measurements or estimates were made.

D3) S Bastuji-Garin et al: Acute leukaemia in workers exposed to electromagnetic fields (letter). Eur J Cancer 26:1119-1120, 1990.
- Case-control study of leukemia in electrical occupations. Non-welding jobs showed an increase in acute leukemia; but welding (a high exposure occupation) did not. Increases in acute leukemia incidence were also shown for herbicide exposure.

D4) T Tynes and A Anderson: Electromagnetic fields and male breast cancer (letter). Lancet 336:1596, 1990.
- Norwegian electrical workers were compared to census data, and an elevated incidence of male breast cancer was found in transportation workers, but not in other occupations. No exposure measurements or estimates were made.

D5) PA Demers et al: Occupational exposure to electromagnetic fields and breast cancer in men. Amer J Epidem 134:340-347, 1991.
- Case-control study of occupations with reported exposure to power-frequency fields. An excess incidence of male breast cancer was found. The elevated incidence was highest among electricians, telephone linemen and electric power workers, those exposed young, and those exposed many years prior to diagnosis. No exposure measurements or estimates were made.

D6) GM Matanoski et al: Electromagnetic field exposure and male breast cancer (letter). Lancet 337:737, 1991.
- Retrospective cohort study of male telephone company workers in New York, showing a nonsignificant excess incidence of breast cancer. No exposure measurements or estimates were made.

D7) DP Loomis: Cancer of breast among mean in electrical occupations (letter). Lancet 339:1482-1483, 1992.
- Proportional mortality study found a nonsignificant excess incidence of breast cancer in some electrical occupations, but not in electrical occupations in general. No exposure measurements or estimates were made.

D8) GM Matanoski et al: Leukemia in telephone linemen. Am J Epidem 137:609-619, 1993.
- Case-control study of telephone company workers, with exposure defined by job titles plus some retrospective measurements. The incidence of leukemia was not significantly increased in workers with higher exposures to magnetic fields.

D9) B Floderus et al: Occupational exposure to electromagnetic fields in relation to leukemia and brain tumors: A case-control study in Sweden. Cancer Causes Control 4:463-476, 1993.
- A case-control study of leukemia and brain tumors in occupationally-exposed men. Exposure calculations were based on the job held longest during the 10-year period prior to diagnosis. Measurements were taken using a person whose job was most similar to that of the person in the study. An elevation in incidence was found for leukemia, but not for brain cancer.

D10) JD Sahl et al: Cohort and nested case-control studies of hematopoietic cancers and brain cancer among electric utility workers. Epidemiology 4:104-114, 1993.
- Study of electrical utility workers in California. Dosimetry was done on selected workers. Electricians had the highest exposures, with a time-weighted mean of 3 microT. No significant excess of total cancer, leukemia, brain cancer or lymphoma were found.

D11) P Guénel et al: Incidence of cancer in persons with occupational exposure to electromagnetic fields in Denmark. Br J Indust Med 50:758-764, 1993.
- A case-control study based on estimated 50-Hz magnetic field exposure. No significant increases were seen for breast cancer, malignant lymphomas or brain tumors. Leukemia incidence was elevated among men in the highest exposure category; women in similar exposure categories showed no increase in leukemia.

D12) G Thériault et al: Cancer risks associated with occupational exposure to magnetic fields among utility workers in Ontario and Quebec, Canada and France: 1970-1989. Amer J Epidem 139:550-572, 1994.
- Case-control study with exposure to magnetic fields estimated from measurements of current exposure of workers performing similar tasks. No association with magnetic fields was observed for overall cancer or for any of the other 29 cancer types studied, including melanoma, overall leukemia, brain cancer or male breast cancer.

D13) T Tynes et al: Leukemia and brain tumors in Norwegian railway workers, a nested case-control study. Amer J Epidem 139:645-653, 1994.
- Case-control study of workers on electric and non-electric railroads. Analysis showed no significant excess of leukemia or brain cancer, and no significant trend for either magnetic or electric fields. On the electrified railroads fields averaged 20 microT, and 0.8 kV/m.

D14) PF Rosenbaum et al: Occupational exposures associated with male breast cancer. Amer J Epidem 139:30-36, 1994.
- Case-control study of male breast cancer from the New York tumor registry. Elevated breast cancer incidence was associated with occupational exposure to heat, but not with exposure to power-frequency fields.

D15) DP Loomis et al: Breast cancer mortality among female electrical workers in the United States. J Natl Cancer Inst 86:921-925, 1994.
- Death certificate based study of female electrical workers. An elevated incidence of breast cancer was found in occupations with presumed exposure to power-frequency fields (largely "male-dominated" occupations), but not in occupations with "potential exposure" (largely "female-dominated" occupations). The authors note that the excess breast cancer may only indicate that women working in male-dominated jobs have a reproductive history which increases their risk of breast cancer.

D16) B Armstrong et al: Association between exposure to pulsed electromagnetic fields and cancer in electric utility workers in Quebec, Canada, and France. Amer J Epidem 140:805-820, 1994.
- Using the database used by Theriault et al [D12], the authors found that workers exposed to short-duration pulsed EM fields (PEMFs) had significant increases in lung cancer. The association of lung cancer with PEMF is reported to be strong, and to have a significant dose-response relationship. No relationship was found between PEMF exposure and other types of cancer. The dosimetry for this study is based on a dosimeter that may not actually measure "PEMF" [D17].

D17) JL Guttman et al: Frequency response characterization of the positron electromagnetic dosimeter pulsed electromagnetic field/high-frequency transient channel; PS Maruvada and P Jutras: Study of the response of the HFT channel of the positron dosimeter. Biol Effects Elec Magn Fields, Albuquerque, 1994.
- The HFT channel of the Positron dosimeter used by Armstrong et al [D16] to assess "PEMF" exposure was designed to respond to signals having an electric field component greater than 200 V/m at 2-20 MHz. However, in the utility environment the HFT channel responds poorly to switching transients, but is exquisitely sensitive to radio transmissions near 150 MHz.

D18) T Tynes et al: Incidence of cancer among workers in Norwegian hydroelectric power companies. Scand J Work Environ Health 20:339-344, 1994.
- A cohort study, with exposure estimated from individual work histories plus data from recent work place measurements. Exposures ranged from 1-8 microT, with maximums of 100-200 microT. The incidence of leukemia, lymphoma, brain cancer and overall cancer were not elevated. No type of cancer was significantly elevated or decreased.

D19) SJ London et al: Exposure to magnetic fields among electrical workers in relationship to leukemia risk in Los Angeles County. Amer J Indust Med 26:47-60, 1994.
- Case-control study of electrical workers. There was a weakly-positive trend linking exposure with leukemia incidence.

D20) B Floderus et al: Incidence of selected cancers in Swedish railway workers, 1961-1979. Cancer Causes Control 5:189-194, 1994.
- Reanalysis of cancer incidence data for electrical railroad workers found a non-significant increase in chronic lymphocytic leukemia, acute myeloid leukemia, breast cancer, pituitary cancer and lymphoma in the first decade of data, but not in later data. No increase in overall leukemia or in brain cancer was seen. No exposure estimates or measurements were made.

D21) DA Savitz and DP Loomis: Magnetic field exposure in relation to leukemia and brain cancer mortality among utility workers. Amer J Epidem 141:123-134, 1995 (see erratum Amer J Epidem 144:205, 1996).
- A case-control study of leukemia, brain cancer and overall cancer in electric utility workers. Exposure was estimated from individual work histories plus data from recent work place measurements. Total mortality and overall cancer mortality rose slightly with estimated exposure, reaching RRs of 1.2 in the group with the highest estimated exposure. Leukemia mortality was not linked with estimated exposure. Brain cancer mortality was elevated in the group with the highest exposure.

D22) KP Cantor et al: Breast cancer mortality among female electrical workers in the United States. J Natl Cancer Inst 87:227-118, 1995.
- Using the mortality records used by Loomis et al [D15] the authors found no association of breast cancer with occupational exposure to either radiation frequency or power-frequency fields.

D23) PF Coogan et al: Occupational exposure to 60-Hertz magnetic fields and risk of breast cancer in women. Epidemiology 7:459-464, 1996.
- Case control study based on breast cancer registry. Exposure was assessed on the basis of the "most representative job", with occupations grouped in categories according to "potential for exposure to 60-Hz magnetic fields". No estimates of actual exposure levels or duration were made. A non-significant excess of breast cancer was found in the group with "high potential exposure", with no excess risk for lower estimated exposure levels.

D24) HM Firth et al: Male cancer incidence by occupation: New Zealand, 1972-1984. Int J Epidem 25:14-21, 1996.
- A study of cancer incidence found that work in occupations where there was exposure to electromagnetic fields showed no statistically significant increase of myeloid or lymphoid leukemia or brain cancer.

D25) AB Miller et al: Leukemia following occupational exposure to 60-Hz electric and magnetic fields among Ontario electric utility workers. Amer J Epidem 144:150-160, 1996.
- A case-control study of male electrical utility workers that looks at electric as well as magnetic fields. All cancer, plus 14 cancer subtypes were analyzed. There was no association of overall cancer rates with either electric of magnetic field exposure. For the cancer subtypes, a "significant" positive association was reported only for electric fields and total leukemia.

D26) P Guenel et al: Exposure to 50-Hz electric field and the incidence of leukemia, brain tumors, and other cancers among French electric utility workers. Am J Epidem 144:1107-1121, 1996.
- Case-control study of electric field exposure, with exposure estimates based on measurements of representative workers. Calculations were made for total cancer and 18 cancer subtypes. Overall cancer rates decreased with exposure, and the decrease approached "significance". Leukemia incidence was decreased and brain tumor incidence was increased in the highest exposure group.

D26a) D Baris et al: A mortality study of electrical utility workers in Québec, Occup Environ Med 53:25-31, 1996. - Mortality study of 22,000 electrical workers. The RRs for most diseases were below one (the "healthy worker" effect), and no cancer-related RRs were significantly elevated. For overall cancer, RRs were in the 0.7 to 1.0 range. Very few leukemias or brain cancers were observed.

D27) JM Harrington et al: Occupational exposure to magnetic fields in relation to mortality from brain cancer among electricity generation and transmission workers. Occup Environ Med 54:7-13, 1997.
- A case-control study of magnetic field exposure and brain cancer. Cumulative exposures were based on job histories and measurements in representative workers. No elevation of brain cancer incidence was found.

D28) M Feychting et al: Occupational and residential magnetic field exposure and leukemia and central nervous system tumors. Epidemiology 8:384-389, 1997.
- Analysis of both occupational and residential exposure of adults. For leukemia and exposure greater than 0.2 microT, the RR was not elevated for residential exposure, but was elevated for occupational and combined residential and occupation exposure. The elevated risk for combined exposure is based on 9 cases. No elevated risks of brain cancer were found for any group.

D29) LI Kheifets et al: Leukemia risk and occupational electric field exposure in Los Angeles County, California. Amer J Epidem 146:87-90, 1997.
- Analysis of electric field data from a previous occupational magnetic field study. Electric and magnetic field exposures were not well-correlated. The highest E-field exposures were 85 V/m in power station workers, 31 V/m in electricians, and 19 V/m in TV/radio workers . "Nonelectrical" workers have mean exposures of 5.5 V/m. For the highest exposure category the RR for leukemia was not elevated, and there was no significant exposure-response trend.

D30) DA Savitz et al: Lung cancer in relation to employment in the electrical utility industry and exposure to magnetic fields. Occup Environ Med 54:396-402, 1997.
- Study of lung cancer and occupational exposure to 60-Hz magnetic fields and pulsed magnetic fields. No consistent association was found between exposure and lung cancer incidence.

D31) C Johansen et al: Risk of cancer among Danish utility workers -- A nationwide cohort study. Amer J Epidem 147:548-555, 1998.
- Utility workers have slightly more cancer than expected from general population statistics, with no excess of leukemia, brain cancer, or breast cancer (the excess is due to in lung cancer from asbestos exposure) . There was no association of exposure to power-frequency fields and leukemia, brain cancer, or female breast cancer.

D32) DA Savitz et al: Magnetic field exposure and neurodegenerative disease mortality among electric utility workers. Epidemiology 9:398-404, 1998.
- A study of occupational exposure to power-frequency magnetic fields which found no association with Alzheimer's disease, little association with Parkinson's disease, and some evidence for a weak association with amyelotropic lateral sclerosis.

D33) P Cocco et al: Case-control study of occupational exposures and male breast cancer. Occup Environ Med 55:599-604, 1998.
- A case-control study of male breast cancer and occupational exposure to hydrocarbons, pesticides, organic solvents, high temperature and "EMF" (presumably power-frequency fields) found no association of breast cancer incidence with "EMF" exposure.

D34) SA Petralia et al: Occupational risk factors for breast cancer among women in Shanghai. Amer J Indust Med 34:477-483, 1998.
- Occupational exposure to power-frequency fields and female breast cancer in Shanghai. Exposure was based on job history. The RR for "ever having been exposed to EMF" was 1.0 (0.9-1.0). When stratified for probability or level of exposure, there we no elevated risks.

D35) Y Rodvall et al: Occupational exposure to magnetic fields and brain tumors in central Sweden. European Journal of Epidemiology 14:563-569, 1998.
- Case-control study of brain cancer and occupational exposure to 50-Hz magnetic fields. Exposure estimates were based on occupational industry, and statistically insignificant increases in brain cancer rates were found for some definitions of exposure.

D36) DA Savitz, D Liao et al: Magnetic field exposure and cardiovascular disease mortality among electric utility workers. Amer J Epidem 149:135-142, 1999.
- Study of cardiovascular disease in electrical utility workers found an elevated incidence of certain types of heart disease in workers with exposure to power-frequency magnetic fields.

D37) C Johansen, N Koch-Henriksen et al: Multiple sclerosis among utility workers. Neurology 52:1279-1282, 1999.
The incidence of multiple sclerosis was not significantly elevated among Danish utility workers with high estimated exposure to power-frequency fields.

D38) AB Graves, D Rosner et al: Occupational exposure to electromagnetic fields and Alzheimer Disease. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 13:165-170,1999.
- A case-control study of Alzheimer's disease and occupational exposure to power-frequency fields that found no association.

D39) PJ Villeneuve, DA Agnew et al: Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma among electric utility workers in Ontario: the evaluation of alternate indices of exposure to 60 Hz electric and magnetic fields, Occup Environ Med 57:249-257, 2000.
- Electric utility workers with high and/or prolonged power-frequency electric field exposure had increased rates of non-Hodgkins lymphoma.

D40) PJ Villeneuve, D Agnew et al: Leukemia in electric utility workers: The evaluation of alternative indices of exposure to 60 Hz electric and magnetic fields, Amer J Indust Med 37:607-617, 2000.
- Electric utility workers with high and/or prolonged power-frequency electric field exposure had increased rates of leukemia. The authors hypothesize that: "electric fields act as a promoting agent in the etiology of adult leukemia."

D41) E van Wijngaarden, DA Savitz et al: Exposure to electromagnetic fields and suicide among electric utility workers: a nested case-control study, Occup Environ Med 57:258-263, 2000.
- The authors report an association between suicide and exposure to power-frequency fields in male electric utility workers.

D42) SE Carozza, M Wrensch et al: Occupation and adult gliomas. Am J Epidemiol 152:838-846, 2000.
- "Electricians and electrical and electronics workers" did not have elevated risks of malignant brain tumors.

E1) AB Hill: The environment and disease: Association or causation? Proc Royal Soc Med 58:295-300, 1965.
- Concise statement of the methods use to assess causation in epidemiologic studies.

E2) M Bauchinger et al: Analysis of structural chromosome changes and SCE after occupational long-term exposure to electric and magnetic fields from 380 kV-systems. Rad Environ Biophys 19:235-238, 1981.
- Lymphocytes from occupationally exposed 50 Hz switchyard workers showed no increase in the frequencies of chromosome aberrations.

E3) I Nordenson et al: Clastogenic effects in human lymphocytes of power frequency electric fields: In vivo and in vitro studies. Rad Environ Biophys 23:191-201, 1984.
- Authors report increased chromosome and chromatid breaks in both smoking and non-smoking switchyard workers. All cases except one had immediately prior exposure to high electrical fields and spark discharges. In a separate study, excess chromosome breaks were found human lymphocytes were exposed to spark discharges in cell culture.

E4) W Den Otter: Tumor cells do not arise frequently. Cancer Immunol Immunother 19:159-162, 1985.
- A hypothesis which greatly influenced thinking in tumor immunology in the 70's was that tumor cells frequently and that the majority of these potential tumors were killed by immune surveillance mechanisms. Newer studies lead to the conclusion that an efficient natural immunity that could kill many tumor cells is lacking, that few tumors arise when normal immune surveillance and/or natural resistance are absent.

E5) I Nordenson et al: Chromosomal effects in lymphocytes of 400 kV-substation workers. Rad Environ Biophys 27:39-47, 1988.
- Lymphocytes from switchyard workers showed an increase in the frequency of chromosome aberrations. Spark discharges were closely associated with the increased frequency of chromosome aberrations.

E6) DA Savitz and L Feingold: Association of childhood leukemia with residential traffic density. Scan J Work Environ Health 15:360-363, 1989.
- Analysis of the authors' power line study [C6] using traffic density as the exposure. Significant excess risk of leukemia and total cancer associated with high traffic density.

E7) I Penn: Why do immunosuppressed patients develop cancer? Crit Rev Oncogen 1:27-52, 1989.
- Review of the relationship between cancer development and immune suppression

E9) JD Jackson: Are the stray 60-Hz electromagnetic fields associated with the distribution and use of electric power a significant cause of cancer? Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 89:3508-3510, 1992.
- Argument that lack of correlation between electric power use and leukemia rates over time argues against a causal relationship.

E10) T Sinks et al: Mortality among workers exposed to polychlorinated biphenyls. Amer J Epidem 136:389-398, 1992.
- A study of workers exposed to PCBs found no increase in overall cancer, brain cancer, leukemia or lymphoma, but significant increases in skin cancer. "On the basis of evidence from animal studies, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are considered potentially carcinogenic to humans. However, the results of studies in human populations exposed to PCBs has been inconsistent".

E11) J Valjus et al: Analysis of chromosomal aberrations, SCEs and micronuclei among power linesmen with long-term exposure to 50-Hz electromagnetic fields. Rad Environ Biophys 32:325-336, 1993.
- Chromosomal aberrations, SCEs and micronuclei were assessed among current nonsmokers with long-term exposure to 50-Hz fields. No exposure related differences in SCEs, replication indices or micronuclei were observed, but an exposure-related increase in chromatid breaks was found among previous smokers.

E12) K Skyberg et al: Chromosome aberrations in lymphocytes of high-voltage laboratory cable splicers exposed to electromagnetic fields. Scand J Work Environ Health 19:29-34, 1993.
- The authors report increased rate of chromosome breaks in exposed workers who were also smokers (no increase in non smokers) but no increase in SCEs. The authors state that they are "unable to exclude spark discharges as a causal factor". This "positive" finding may be a multiple testing artifact.

E13) G Ciccone et al: Myeloid leukemia and myelodysplastic syndromes: Chemical exposure, histologic subtype and cytogenetics in a case-control study. Cancer Genet Cytogenet 68:135-139, 1993
- Case-control study showed excess incidence of myeloid leukemias among welders, electricians, drivers, farmers and textile workers. An increase in chromosome aberrations were not associated with chemical exposure, but a nonsignificant association was noted for power-frequency fields.

E14) AM Khalil et al: Cytogenetic changes in human lymphocytes from workers occupationally exposed to high-voltage electromagnetic fields. Electro Magnetobio 12:17-26, 1993.
- Chromosome aberrations and SCEs were studies in substation workers. The author claims that number of aberrant cells was increased and the mitotic index decreased in the exposed group, with no effect on SCE rate, and no effect of smoking. No correlation was found between effects and the duration of exposure.

E16) E Sobel et al: Elevated risk of Alzheimer's disease among workers with likely electromagnetic field exposure. Neurology 47:1477-1481, 1996.
- A case-control study of Alzheimer's disease and "occupations with likely exposure to electromagnetic fields". The authors report an elevated risk of Alzheimer's in these occupations. The method for deciding whether occupations had "likely exposure to electromagnetic fields" was qualitative. The bulk of the Alzheimer's patients that were classified as having "occupations with likely exposure to electromagnetic fields" were sewing machine operators.

E17) B Selmaoui et al: Magnetic fields and pineal function in humans: Evaluation of nocturnal acute exposure to extremely low frequency magnetic fields on serum melatonin and urinary 6-sulfatoxymelatonin circadian rhythms. Life Sci 58:1539-1549, 1996.
- Young men were exposed at night to continuous or intermittent 50-Hz linearly polarized fields at 10 microT. No effects were seen on serum melatonin or excretion of melatonin metabolites in urine.

E18) C Graham et al: Nocturnal melatonin levels in human volunteers exposed to intermittent 60 Hz magnetic fields. Bioelectromag 17:263-273, 1996.
- Human volunteers (all men) were exposed to 50-Hz magnetic fields at 1 microT continuous, or 20 microT intermittent, for 10 hours at night. No effects on melatonin levels were found.

E19) B Selmaoui et al: Acute exposure to 50 Hz magnetic field does not affect hematologic or immunologic functions in healthy young men: A circadian study. Bioelectromag 17:364-372, 1996.
- Human volunteers (all men) were exposed for 7 hours at night to a continuous or intermittent 50-Hz field at 10 microT. No effects of hematology or immune function were found.

E20) C Graham et al: Human melatonin during continuous magnetic field exposure. Bioelectromag 18:166-171, 1997.
- Men continuously exposed to a 200 mG field for 10 hrs showed no alterations in night-time melatonin.

E21) AW Wood et al: Changes in human plasma melatonin profiles in response to 50 Hz magnetic field exposure. J Pineal Res 25:116-127, 1998.
- Adult males were exposed to 30 microT 50-Hz sinusoidal or square-wave fields at various times at night. When exposures preceded the normal time of the night-time rise, the rise was delayed, but total melatonin production was not affected.

E22) ML Sait, AW Wood et al: Human heart rate changes in response to 50 Hz sinusoidal and square waveform magnetic fields: A follow up study, In: "Electricity and Magnetism in Medicine and Biology", F Bersani., ed., Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, pp. 517-520 (1999).
- Human volunteers were exposed to 15.3 microT sinusoidal or square-wave fields for 100 or 150 seconds. The sine field caused a small decrease in heart rate, but the square wave had no consistent effect.

E23) C Graham, MR Cook et al: Multi-night exposure to 60 Hz magnetic fields: Effects on melatonin and its enzymatic metabolite. J.Pineal Res. 28:1-8, 2000.
- Human volunteers (young men) were exposed on 4 consecutive nights to a 60-Hz field at 28.3 microT, with no effects on melatonin levels as measured by excretion of the metabolite.

E24) J Juutilainen, RG Stevens et al: Nocturnal 6-hydroxymelatonin sulfate excretion in female workers exposed to magnetic fields. J Pineal Res 28:97-104,2000.
- Nocturnal melatonin exposure was decreased in garment workers exposed to power-frequency fields from sewing machines (compared to other factory workers with lower exposures), but the decrease was not significantly dependent on the level of exposure.

E25) SC Hong, Y Kurokawa et al: Chronic exposure to ELF magnetic fields during night sleep with electric sheet: Effects on diurnal melatonin rhythms in men. Bioelectromag 22:138-143,2001.
- Human volunteers were exposed at night for 11 weeks to 0.7-3.6 microT 50 Hz fields, and no effects on melatonin levels were observed.

F2) WE Feero: Electric and magnetic field management. Amer Indust Hygiene Assoc J 54:205-210, 1993.
- Discussion of techniques for reducing power-frequency magnetic fields, including cancellation and shielding issues.

F3) RK Adair: Constraints on biological effects of weak extremely-low-frequency electromagnetic fields, Phys Rev A 43:1039-1048, 1991.
- The effect of environmental power-frequency fields on cells "is smaller than thermal noise..." To get an effect you need a resonance mechanism, and "such resonances are shown to be incompatible with cell characteristics... hence, any biological effects of weak ELF fields [less than 50 microT] on the cellular level must be found outside of the scope of conventional physics".

F4) JL Kirschvink et al: Magnetite in human tissues: A mechanism for the biological effects of weak ELF magnetic fields. Bioelectromag Suppl 1:101-113, 1992.
- A calculation that magnetite-containing bodies in cells could response to ELF fields, and could cause changes in ion channels if the channels were mechanically controlled by these "magnetosomes". The model requires power-frequency field fields on the order of 60 microT to achieve detectable effects.

F5) RK Adair: Criticism of Lednev's mechanism for the influence of weak magnetic fields on biological systems. Bioelectromag 13:231-235, 1992.
- A review of the multiple biological and biophysical problem with Lednev's cyclotron resonance model. "I show that for four independent reasons, no such mechanism can operate".

F6) T Dovan et al: Repeatability of measurements of residential magnetic fields and wire codes. Bioelectromag 14:145-159, 1993.
- Repeat measurement of homes that had been included in Savitz study [C6] found that neither measured fields nor wire codes had changed significantly over a five-year period.

F7) WT Kaune: Assessing human exposure to power-frequency electric and magnetic fields. Environ Res 101 (Suppl 4):121-133, 1993.
- Review of electric and magnetic field levels in occupational and residential settings, and of current issues in dosimetry.

F10) WT Kaune et al: Development of a protocol for assessing time-weighted-average exposures of young children to power-frequency magnetic fields. Bioelectromag 15:33-51, 1994.
- Mean residential exposures were 0.1 microT, with a range from 0.02 - 0.7 microT. Wire codes were correlated with 24-hr personal exposure, but the wire-codes accounted for only 18% of the variability in the measured fields. No characteristics of the magnetic fields were found to be strongly correlated with wire-codes.

F11) JD Sahl et al: Exposure to 60 Hz magnetic fields in the electric utility work environment. Bioelectromag 15:21-32, 1994.
- Average exposures ranged from less than 0.2 microT in clerical staff to greater than 1.5 microT in electricians and substation operators. Typical maximum daily exposures were 4-7 microT, but exposures above 15 microT were recorded on rare occasions.

F12) RK Adair: Constraints of thermal noise on the effects of weak 60-Hz magnetic fields acting on biological magnetite. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 91:2925-2929, 1994.
- "Previous calculations of limits imposed by thermal noise on the effects of weak 60-Hz magnetic fields on biological magnetite are generalized and extended... The results indicate that the energies transmitted to the magnetite elements by fields less than 5 microT... will be much less than thermal noise energies... However, the arguments presented here do not preclude effects from larger 60-Hz fields"

F13) C Polk: Effects of extremely-low-frequency magnetic fields on biological magnetite. Bioelectromag 15:261-270, 1994.
- The author disputes Adair's analysis [F12] of the biophysics of the interaction of ELF fields with biological magnetite. Polk claims that Adair's conclusions are strongly dependent on assumptions about cytoplasmic viscosity, and argues that the model would allow interactions down to about 2 microT.

F15) Testing and evaluation of magnetic field meters. Electrical Power Research Center, Ames, Iowa, 1994.
- Evaluations of meters that are representative of what is currently available plus basic information on additional model. In addition to the usual performance tests, each meter is rated for its use by the expect, the non-expert and the lay-person.

F16) DA Savitz et al: Correlations among indices of electric and magnetic field exposure in electric utility workers. Bioelectromag 15:193-204, 1994.
- Detailed dosimetry was conducted on exposures of electrical workers. Magnetic and electrical field exposures were only weakly correlated. Average measurements were 55 V/m and 0.9 microT; geometric mean measurements were 7 V/m and 0.3 microT; the 90th percentiles were 144 V/m and 1.9 microT.

F17) RD Astumian et al: Rectification and signal averaging of weak electric fields by biological cells. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 92:3740-3743, 1995.
- "Oscillating electric fields can be rectified by proteins in cell membranes to give rise to transport of a substance across the membrane or a net conversion of substrate to a product. This provides the basis for signal averaging... we consider the limits imposed by thermal and biological noise... Numerical results indicate that it is difficult to reconcile biological effects with low field strengths".

F18) B Brocklehurst and KA McLauchlan: Free radical mechanism for the effects of environmental electromagnetic fields on biological systems. Int J Rad Biol 69:3-24, 1996.
- Discussion of magnetic field effects on radical pair reactions as a mechanism whereby magnetic fields of environmental levels might effect biological systems. Effects are theoretically possible down to fields of geomagnetic strength, and the authors demonstrate effects at static fields as low as 100 microT.

F19) PA Valberg: Designing EMF experiments: What's required to characterize "exposure"? Bioelectromag 16:396-401, 1996.
- A detailed review of the parameters that are required to fully characterized exposure to power-frequency fields

F20) T Martinson et al: Power lines and ionizing radiation. Health Phys 71:944-946, 1996.
- Ionizing radiation measurements were made at ground level along a high-voltage transmission line. There was no relationship between the distance from the line and the radiation dose, and the dose did not depend on whether line was energized.

F21) LI Kheifets et al: Wire codes, magnetic fields, and childhood cancer. Bioelectromag 18:99-110, 1997.
- "The lack of a consistent relationship between the risk of childhood cancer and measurements of magnetic field exposure, contrasted with more consistent relationship with wire codes, remains paradoxical. Based on the available data, we are unable to conclude that this occurs because wire codes provide a better, more stable estimate of average magnetic field exposure."

F22) AW Preece et al: Magnetic fields from domestic appliances in the UK. Phys Med Biol 42:67-76, 1997.
- Only a few common household appliances generate fields in excess of 0.2 microT at 1 meter are: microwave ovens, washing machines, dishwashers, can openers, pumps on central heating units and fish tank air pumps. A study of mothers at home with young children found that the average exposure level was 0.067 microT, of which about 0.023 microT appeared to come from appliances

F23) PA Valberg et al: Can low-level 50/60-Hz electric and magnetic fields cause biological effects. Rad Res 148:2-21, 1997.
- The authors conclude that "biological effects in humans due to extremely-low-frequency electromagnetic fields of the order found in residential environments (less than 2 microT) are implausible based on current physics and biology". Even at levels of 100 microT and 1 kV/m, no plausible mechanisms could be identified. Note the caveats. Dr. Valberg and colleagues are not claiming that biological effects of power-frequency fields are impossible, only that there is nothing in what we know about interaction of electromagnetic fields with biological material that could explain the epidemiological associations that have been reported.

F24) P Burgess et al: Cosmic radiation and powerlines. Radiol Protec Bull 131:17-19, 1994.
- Ionizing radiation measurements were taken under an 11 kV and a 440 kV line. No effect of the lines on ionizing radiation dose rates were found.

F25) J Swanson: Long-term variations in the exposure of the population of England and Wales to power-frequency magnetic fields. J Radiol Protec 16:287-301, 1996.
- Estimate of the change in residential exposure to power-frequency fields in the UK between 1949 and 1989. The overall average residential exposure is estimated to have increased by a factor of 4.5, with most of the increase occurring prior to 1970.

F26) RK Adair: A physical analysis of the ion parametric resonance model. Bioelectromag 19:181-191, 1998.
- "The physical basis of the ion paramagnetic resonance model... [indicates] that no combination of weak AC and DC magnetic fields can modify the transition rate to the ground state of excited ions... The model cannot account for any purported biological effects of extremely weak low frequency magnetic fields".

F27) RWP King [with comments by R. K. Adair and K. R. Foster]: The interaction of power-line electromagnetic fields with the human body. IEEE Eng Med Biol Nov/Dec: 67-78, 1998.
- Theoretical analysis argues that electrical fields from power lines will induced body currents greater than the magnetic fields from the lines, and that wooden/brick houses do not shield their interior from power-frequency electric fields. Includes commentary by Adair and Foster who disagree with both of these points on both theoretical and experimental grounds.

F28) P Chadwick et al: Magnetic fields on British trains. Ann Occup Hygiene 5:331-335, 1998.
- Electric trains are a source of exposure to both static and power-frequency fields. At seat height within the passenger compartment, static fields can be up to 0.2 milliT, and the power-frequency field scan be up to 60 microT. Actual exposure levels are very dependent on equipment design and location within the train.

F29) G George: Line designs reduce EMF emissions. Trans Dist World, April 1998; 68-72.
- Brief technical discussion of techniques for reducing magnetic fields from transmission lines, including a discussion of overhead versus underground lines.

F30) JC Weaver et al: Theoretical limits on the threshold for the response of long cells to weak extremely low frequency electric fields due to ionic and molecular flux rectification. Biophys J 75:2251-2254, 1998.
- Theoretical analysis of the effect of power-frequency fields on membrane channels shows that effects would require a field of 600 microT. The authors conclude: "unless large, organized and electrically amplified multicellular systems such as the ampullae of Lorenzini [the E-field sensing organs of some fish] are involved... the biophysical mechanism of voltage-gated macromolecules in the membranes of cells can be ruled out as a basis for possible effect of weak ELF electric and magnetic fields."

F31) JCH Miles and RA Algar: Measurements of radon decay product concentrations under power lines. Radiation Protection Dosimetry 74:193-194, 1997.
- Direct measurement of radon decay products found no increase under high voltage power lines.

F32) C Eichwald and J Walleczek: Magnetic field perturbations as a tool for controlling enzyme-regulated and oscillatory biochemical reactions. Biophys Chem 74:209-224, 1998.
- Theoretical analysis suggests that power-frequency fields as low as 1000 microT might be able to perturb biochemical reaction via the radical pair mechanism.

F33) R. K. Adair: Effects of very weak magnetic fields on radical pair reformation. Bioelectromag 20:255-263, 1999.
- A review of the physics of radical pair recombination indicates that: "even under singularly favorable conditions, fields as small as 5 microT cannot be expected to change the recombination rate by as much as 1%" and that "environmental magnetic fields much weaker than the earth's field cannot be expected to affect biology significantly by modifying recombination probabilities".

F34) JC Weaver, TE Vaughan et al: Biological effects due to weak electric and magnetic fields: The temperature variation threshold. Biophys J 76:3026-3030, 1999.
- "For typical temperature sensitivities of biological processes, realistic temperature variations during long exposures raise the threshold exposure [for biological effects of ELF fields] by two to three orders of magnitude, over a fundamental value, independent of the biophysical coupling mechanism... Our results significantly decrease the plausibility of effects for non-sensory biological systems due to prolonged, weak field exposure".

F35) WT Kaune, TD Bracken et al: Rate of occurrence of transient magnetic field events in U.S. residences. Bioelectromag 21:197-213,2000.
- A study of magnetic field transients in residences. These transients occur when electric circuits are turned on and off. They are of potential interest because they would induce higher electrical fields in the human body than power-frequency fields with similar field strength. Homes in urban areas had more transients than homes in rural areas. According to the authors, their study "does not provide much support for the hypothesis that transient magnetic fields are the underlying exposure that explains the associations... between childhood cancer and residence in [high wire codes homes]."

F36) KC Jaffa, H Kim et al: The relative merits of contemporary measurements and historical calculated fields in the Swedish childhood cancer study. Epidemiology 11:353-356,2000.
- "...historical average calculated fields, which are widely used to estimate biologically relevant exposure to electromagnetic fields, may be less accurate than contemporary measured fields... We use data from the seminal Feychting and Ahlbom study...[to] show how the two types of measurements can produce divergent estimates of risk and show how in the Feychting and Ahlbom study, the less accurate measurement, the historical average calculated fields, may have resulted in a spurious increase in the estimates of risk..."

F37) RW Eveson, CR Timmel et al: The effects of weak magnetic fields on radical recombination reactions in micelles. Int J Radiat Biol 76:1509-1522, 2000.
- In an experimental system, exposure to magnetic fields pulsed at 2 Hz could produce effects on free radical reactions at field strengths as low as 1000-2000 microT.

G0) GL Whitson et al: Effects of extremely low frequency (ELF) electric fields on cell growth and DNA repair in human skin fibroblasts, Cell Tissue Kinet 19:39-47, 1986.
- Human skin fibroblasts exposed for 100 hrs 60-Hz fields at 10 kV/m. Exposures were done before, after and during UV irradiation, and no effect on repair of UV-induced DNA damage was observed. No effects of cell growth or cell survival were observed.

G1) MM Cohen et al: Effect of low-level, 60-Hz electromagnetic fields on human lymphoid cells: I. Mitotic rate and chromosome breakage in human peripheral lymphocytes. Bioelectromag 7:415-423, 1986.
- Exposure to 100 or 200 microT magnetic fields and/or to a 0.002 kV/m electric field had no effect on chromosome abnormalities or mitotic index of human lymphocytes.

G2) MM Cohen et al: The effect of low-level 60-Hz electromagnetic fields on human lymphoid cells. II: Sister-chromatid exchanges in peripheral lymphocytes and lymphoblastoid cell lines. Mut Res 172:177-184, 1986.
- Exposure to 100 or 200 microT magnetic fields and/or to a 0.002 kV/m electric field had no effect on rates of SCEs in human lymphocytes.

G3) J Juutilainen and A Liimatainen: Mutation frequency in Salmonella exposed to weak 100-Hz magnetic fields. Hereditas 104:145-147, 1986.
- Exposure to 0.125 to 125 microT 100 Hz fields were not mutagenic in the Ames test, and did not increase the mutagenicity of known mutagens in the Ames test.

G4) RD Benz et al, Mutagenicity and toxicity of 60 Hz magnetic and electric fields, New York State Powerlines Project, New York, 1987.
- Mice were exposed over multiple generations to a 60 Hz fields of 1,000 microT plus 50 kV/m or 300 microT plus 15 kV/m. No effect were seen on dominant lethal mutations, fertility or SCE rates.

G5) K Takahashi et al: Influence of pulsing electromagnetic field on the frequency of sister-chromatid exchanges in cultured mammalian cells. Experientia 43:331-332, 1987.
- Mammalian cells were exposed to 100 Hz pulsed, fields at 180-2,500 microT for 24 hours. No effect the rate of SCEs was observed.

G6) JA Reese et al: Exposure of mammalian cells to 60-Hz magnetic or electric fields: Analysis for DNA single-strand breaks. Bioelectromag 9:237-247, 1988.
- Exposure to 100 or 200 microT 60-Hz fields had no effect on single-strand breaks. Also no effect with electric field or combined electric and magnetic fields.

G7) RAE Thomson et al: Influence of 60-Hertz magnetic fields on leukemia. Bioelectromag 9:149-158, 1988.
- Exposure to 1.4, 200 or 500 microT 60-Hz fields had no effect on leukemia progression in mice.

G8) M Rosenthal and G Obe: Effects of 50-Hertz EM fields on proliferation and on chromosomal aberrations in human peripheral lymphocytes untreated and pretreated with chemical mutagens. Mutat Res 210:329-335, 1989.
- A 5,000 microT 50-Hz field had no effects on chromosome or chromatid breaks or exchanges, and no effects on SCE rate. Some increase in SCE rates were seen for cells pretreated with other mutagens. Enhanced progression though the cell cycle was seen.

G9) A Cossarizza et al: DNA repair after gamma-irradiation in lymphocytes exposed to low-frequency pulsed electromagnetic fields. Rad Res 118:161-168, 1989.
- A 2,500 microT pulsed field (50 Hz) had no effect on repair of radiation-induced DNA damage in human lymphocytes.

G10) ME Frazier et al: Exposure of mammalian cells to 60-Hz magnetic or electric fields: analysis of DNA repair of induced, single-strand breaks. Bioelectromag 11:229-234, 1990.
- A 1,000 microT 60-Hz fields had no effect on repair of radiation-induced DNA damage in human lymphocytes. Also no effect for electric field or combined electric and magnetic fields.

G10a) CI Kowalczuk and RD Saunders: Dominant lethal studies in male mice after exposure to a 50-Hz electric field, Bioelectromag 11:129-137, 1990. - Mice were exposed for 2 weeks to a 50-Hz field at 20 kV/m. No effect on the mutation rate was observed.

G11) JRN McLean et al: Cancer promotion in a mouse-skin model by a 60-Hz magnetic field: II. Tumor development and immune response. Bioelectromag 12:273-287, 1991.
- A 20,000 microT 60-Hz fields did not promote or co-promote (with TPA) cancers in DMBA-induced skin tumor model. Also no effect on progression of skin tumors, and no effect on NK cells or spleen size.

G12) GK Livingston et al: Reproductive integrity of mammalian cells exposed to power-frequency EM fields. Environ Molec Mutat 17:49-58, 1991.
- A 220 microT 60-Hz field had no effect on SCEs, growth rates, cell cycle kinetics, or micronucleus formation rates in human lymphocytes or CHO cells. No effects were seen for electric fields.

G13) G Novelli et al: Study of the effects on DNA of electromagnetic fields using clamped homogeneous electric field gel electrophoresis, Biomed Pharmacother 45:451-454, 1991. - Yeast cells were exposed to for 1-24 hrs to 50-Hz fields at 20 kV/m and/or 200 microT. No excess DNA strand breaks were observed.

G14) A Bellossi: Effect of pulsed magnetic fields on leukemia-prone AKR mice. No effect on mortality through five generations. Leuk Res 15:899-902, 1991.
- Leukemia-prone mice were exposed to a 6,000 microT pulsed field at 12 and 460 Hz pulsed fields over five generations, with no effect on leukemia rates.

G15) E Saalman et al: Lack of c-mitotic effects in V79 Chinese hamster cells exposed to 50 Hz magnetic fields. Bioelectrochem Bioenerg 26:335-338, 1991.
- Mammalian cells were exposed to a 50-Hz field at 30 microT for 1-85 min. No increase in the number of abnormal mitoses were observed.

G16) DS Beniashvili et al: Low-frequency electromagnetic radiation enhances the induction of rat mammary tumors by nitrosomethyl urea. Cancer Let 61:75-79, 1991.
- A preliminary report (with incomplete information about exposure conditions and experimental design) of the effects of 20 microT 50-Hz or static fields (0.5 or 3 hrs/day for 2 years) on chemically-induced mouse mammary tumors. An increase in number of tumors was reported for 3 hr exposures to a 50-Hz field alone (genotoxicity) and for 50-Hz plus NMU (promotion), but not for 0.5 hr exposures. No genotoxic effects were reported for DC fields alone, but promotion was reported for 3 hr exposures to the DC field.

G17) AM Khalil and W Qassem: Cytogenetic effects of pulsing electromagnetic field on human lymphocytes in vitro: chromosome aberrations, sister-chromatid exchanges and cell kinetics. Mutat Res 247:141-146, 1991.
- Human lymphocytes were exposed to 1050 microT pulses at 50 Hz for 45-72 hours. Author reports an increase in chromosome abnormalities at all intervals, and an increase in SCE rate after 72 hours only. The mitotic index was reported to be decreased by exposure to the magnetic field.

G18) MA Stuchly et al: Modification of tumor promotion in the mouse skin by exposure to an alternating magnetic field. Cancer Letters 65:1-7, 1992.
- A 2,000 microT 60-Hz field (exposure time of 23 weeks) did not significantly increase the number of chemically-induced skin tumors in mice, although the tumors appeared earlier.

G19) DD Ager and JA Radul: Effect of 60-Hz magnetic fields on ultraviolet light-induced mutation and mitotic recombination in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Mut Res 283:279-286, 1992.
- A 1,000 microT 60-Hz fields do not cause mutations or chromosome damage in yeast, and do not affect UV-induced DNA damage.

G20) M Fiorani et al: Electric and/or magnetic field effects on DNA structure and function in cultured human cells. Mut Res 282:25-29, 1992.
- 0.2-200 microT 50-Hz fields did not cause DNA damage in human cells, and did not affect the growth of human cells in culture. Also showed no effect for electric fields.

G21) J. Nafziger et al: DNA mutations and 50 Hz EM fields. Bioelec Bioenerg 30:133-141, 1993.
- Exposure to 1 or 10 microT 50-Hz fields did not cause mutations in bacteria or mammalian cells, and did not increase the amount of DNA damage in virus-transformed cells.

G22) Y Otaka et al: Sex-linked recessive lethal test of Drosophila melanogaster after exposure to 50-Hz magnetic fields. Bioelectromag 13:67-74, 1992.
- Exposure to 500 or 5,000 microT 50-Hz fields do not cause mutations in fruit flies.

G23) A. Rannug et al: A study on skin tumor formation in mice with 50 Hz magnetic field exposure. Carcinogenesis 14:573-578, 1993.
- Exposure to 500 or 5,000 microT 50-Hz fields do not increase the incidence of skin tumors or leukemia in mice, and did not increase the frequency of DMBA-induced skin tumors.

G24) R. Zwingelberg et al: Exposure of rats of a 50-Hz, 30-milliT magnetic field influences neither the frequencies of sister-chromatid exchanges nor proliferation characteristics of cultured peripheral lymphocytes. Mutat Res 302:39-44, 1993.
- Exposure to a 30,000 microT 50-Hz field did not cause chromosome damage in human cells, and did not affect the growth of human lymphocytes in culture.

G25) A Rannug et al: Rat liver foci study on coexposure with 50 Hz magnetic fields and known carcinogens. Bioelectromag 14:17-27, 1993.
- Exposure to 0.5 or 500 microT 50-Hz fields did not increase the frequency of chemically-induced liver tumors.

G26) W Loscher et al: Tumor promotion in a breast cancer model by exposure to a weak alternating magnetic field. Cancer Letters 71:75-81, 1993.
- A 100 microT 50-Hz field increased the frequency of chemically-induced mammary tumors. A later analysis [G39] reported that if microscopic tumors were also included there was no difference in tumor frequency.

G27) M Mevissen et al: Effects of magnetic fields on mammary tumor development induced by 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene in rats. Bioelectromag 14:131-143, 1993.
- Exposure of rats to a 0.3-1.0 or a 30,000 microT 50-Hz field for 13 weeks did not increase the frequency of DMBA-induced mammary tumors.

G28) A Rannug et al: A rat liver foci promotion study with 50-Hz magnetic fields. Environ Res 62:223-229, 1993.
- Exposure to 0.5 to 500 microT 50-Hz fields did not increase the frequency of chemically-induced liver tumors.

G29) C Cain et al: 60-Hz magnetic field acts as co-promoter in focus formation of C3H/10T1/2 cells. Carcinogenesis 14:955-960, 1993.
- A 60-Hz, 100 microT field did not cause cell transformation, but the field plus TPA (a known promoter) caused an increase in cell transformation. The author has subsequently reported at meetings that enhancement of TPA-induced transformation could not be replicated.

G30) MA Stuchly: Tumor co-promotion studies by exposure to alternating magnetic fields. Rad Res 133:118-119, 1993.
- Mice were exposed to 60-Hz fields at 2000 microT for 23 weeks. Prior to exposure mice were treated with DMBA (a skin tumor initiator) and during exposure animals were treated with TPA (a skin tumor promoter). Tumors appeared earlier and in more animals in exposed group, but the effect was not significant at the end of the study.

G30a) MR Scarfi et al: 50 Hz AC sinusoidal electric fields do not exert genotoxic effects (micronucleus formation) in human lymphocytes, Rad Res 135:64-68, 1993.
- Human lymphocytes were exposed for 72 hours to a 50-Hz fields at 0.5, 2, 5 and 10 kV/m. No enhanced micronucleus formation was observed for fields alone, and no enhancement of chemically-induced micronucleus formation was observed.

G30b) L D'Agruma et al: Plasmid DNA and low-frequency electromagnetic fields, Biomed Pharmacother 47:101-105, 1993.
- Bacterial DNA was exposed for 48 hrs to fields of 0.1-20 kV/m and/or 0.2-200 microT. No evidence of DNA damage was observed.

G31) A Rannug et al: Intermittent 50-Hz magnetic field and skin tumour promotion in Sencar mice. Carcinogenesis 15:153-157, 1994.
- Skin tumor promotion study using DMBA as an initiator and TPA as a positive control. Exposure was to 50 and 500 microT fields, continuous or 15s on/off, 20 hrs/day for 105 weeks. No significant promotion of skin tumors was found.

G32) W Loscher et al: Effects of weak alternating magnetic fields on nocturnal melatonin production and mammary carcinogenesis in rats. Oncology 51:288-295, 1994.
- Rats exposed to 50-Hz 0.3-1.0 microT field for 91 days after induction of mammary tumors with DMBA. A small but statistically significant decrease in nocturnal melatonin was observed, but there was no increase in the incidence of induced mammary tumors.

G34) I Nordenson et al: Chromosomal aberrations in human amniotic cells after intermittent exposure to fifty hertz magnetic fields. Bioelectromag 15:293-301, 1994.
- Amniotic cells were exposed for 72 hours to a 50 Hz field at 30 microT in a 115 sec on, 15 sec off cycle. Exposure resulted in an increase in the frequency of chromosome aberrations. Continuous exposure did not affect the aberration frequency.

G35) RW West et al: Enhancement of anchorage-independent growth in JB6 cells exposed to 60 hertz magnetic fields. Bioelectrochem Bioenerg 34:39-43, 1994.
- A promotion-sensitive mouse epidermal cell line was exposed to a 60 Hz field at 1100 microT. Exposure resulted in an increase in colony-forming efficiency in soft agar, evidence of neoplastic transformation.

G36) DL McCormick et al: Exposure to 60 Hz magnetic fields and risk of lymphoma in PIM transgenic and TSG-p53 (p53 knockout) mice. Carcinogenesis 19:1649-1653, 1998.
- Transgenic mice that are lymphoma-prone were treated with a carcinogen and exposed to a continuous 60-Hz field at 0 (sham-exposed), 2, 200 or 1000 microT. An a additional group was exposed to an intermittent (1 hr on-off) field at 1000 microT. Normal mice were similarly treated with carcinogen and exposed to a continuous 1000 microT field. All exposures were for 23 weeks. No effects on lymphoma incidence, overall cancer incidence or survival were seen.

G37) DW Fairbairn and KL O'Neill: The effect of electromagnetic field exposure on the formation of DNA single strand breaks in human cells. Cell Molec Biol 4:561-567, 1994.
- Cultured human cells were exposed for 1 or 24 hours to a 50-Hz pulsed field at 5000 microT. No increase in single-strand breaks was found using the comet assay. Hydrogen peroxide was used as a positive control.

G38) MR Scarfi et al: Lack of chromosomal aberration and micronucleus induction in human lymphocytes exposed to pulsed magnetic fields. Mutat Res 306:129-133, 1994.
- Human lymphocytes were exposed for 72 hrs to 50-Hz pulsed fields at 2500 microT. No effects were observed on micronucleus formation, chromosomal or chromatid breaks, but an increase in the mitotic index was observed.

G39) A Baum et al: A histopathological study of alterations in DMBA-induced mammary carcinogenesis in rats with 50 Hz, 100 microT magnetic field exposure. Carcinogenesis 16:119-125, 1995.
- Promotion of DMBA-induced mammary cancer in rats exposed for 91 days to a 100 microT 50-Hz field. This is a reanalysis of the data from an earlier study [G26]. Histopathological examination showed no difference in the number of neoplastic lesions "indicating that magnetic field exposure had not altered the incidence of mammary lesions, but had only accelerated tumor growth."

G40) W Paile et al: Effects of 50 Hz sinusoidal magnetic fields and spark discharges on human lymphocytes in vitro. Bioelectrochem Bioenerg 36:15-22, 1995.
- Human lymphocytes were exposed to a 50-Hz field at 30, 300 and 1000 microT. No effects on chromosome aberrations, micronuclei or proliferation were seen. A weak effect of SCE's was seen in one experiment, but not in a replicate. Exposure of cells to a spark discharge did not produce chromosome aberrations, but did kill large numbers of cells.

G41) S Galt et al: Study of effects of 50 Hz magnetic fields on chromosome aberrations and the growth-related enzyme ODC in human amniotic cells. Bioelectrochem Bioenerg 36:1, 1995
- Human amniotic cells were exposed to a 50-Hz field at 30 microT. No increase in chromosome breaks was observed, and there was a trend towards decreased breaks.

G42) A Antonopoulos et al: Cytological effects of 50 Hz electromagnetic fields on human lymphocytes in vitro. Mut Res Let 346:151-157, 1995.
- Exposure of human lymphocytes to a 50 Hz field at 5,000 microT lead to changes in the cell cycle, but had no effects of SCE rates.

G43) CI Kowalczuk et al: Dominant lethal studies in male mice after exposure to a 50 Hz magnetic field. Mutat Res 328:229-237, 1995.
- Male mice were exposed for eight weeks at a 10,000 microT sinusoidal field at 50 Hz. These male were mated to unexposed females at various intervals after exposure. No statistically significant effect was seen on pregnancy rates or fetal survival. Since only the males were exposed, this is a test for mutagenic effects, not fetal effects.

G44) J McLean et al: A 60-Hz magnetic field increases the incidence of squamous cell carcinomas in mice previously exposed to chemical carcinogens. Cancer Letters 92:121-125, 1995.
- Mice were exposed for 52 weeks at a 2,000 microT sinusoidal field at 60 Hz plus DMBA, a known skin tumor carcinogen. Significantly more skin tumors were found in the field-exposed group. The protocol is identical to that used in Stuchly et al [G18], except that the exposure period was 52 rather than 23 weeks.

G45) S Tofani et al: Evidence for genotoxic effect of resonant ELF magnetic fields. Bioelectrochem Bioenerg 36:9-13, 1995.
- Human lymphocytes exposed to a 50 Hz field at 140 microT or to a 32-Hz field at 75 or 150 microT with the geomagnetic field nulled showed no increase in micronuclei formation. Exposure to the field also did not affect the drug-induced genotoxicity. When the geomagnetic field was not nulled (42 microT parallel to the AC field) the authors report a significant increase in micronuclei.

G46) S Kwee and P Raskmark: Changes in cell proliferation due to environmental non-ionizing radiation .1. ELF electromagnetic fields. Bioelectrochem Bioenerg 36:109-114, 1995.
- Two human cell lines were exposed to a 50 Hz field at 80 microT for 15-90 minutes. Increased proliferation was seen in one cell line at 80-130 microT, but not at lower or higher field intensities. At 80 microT, increased proliferation was seen for 30 min exposures, but not for 16 or 60 min, and only for non-confluent cells. The positive effects may be a multiple comparison artifact.

G47) O Cantoni et al: The effect of 50 Hz sinusoidal electric and/or magnetic fields on the rate of repair of DNA single/double strand breaks in oxidatively injured cells. Biochem Molec Biol Internat 37:681-689, 1995.
- Exposure of CHO cells to 50-Hz electric (0.2-20 kV/m) and/or magnetic (0.2 - 200 microT) fields had no effect on repair of single- or double-strand DNA breaks that had been induced by hydrogen peroxide treatment.

G48) B Kula and M Drozdz: A study of magnetic field effects on fibroblast cultures. Part 1. The evaluation of the effects of static and extremely low frequency (ELF) magnetic fields on vital functions of fibroblasts. Bioelectrochem Bioenerg 39:21-26, 1996.
- Cultured fibroblasts were exposed to a 0.49 milliT static field or a 20,000 microT 50-Hz field for 2-64 min per day for 4 days. Power-frequency field exposure was reported to decrease cell growth and DNA synthesis.

G49) M Mevissen et al: Study on pineal function and DMBA-induced breast cancer formation in rats during exposure to a 100-mG, 50-HZ magnetic field. J Toxicol Environ Health 48:169-185, 1996.
- Rats were treated with DMBA (a breast cancer initiator)and exposed to a 50-Hz field at 10 microT for 91 days. 50-Hz exposure resulted in decreased nocturnal melatonin levels, but no significant effect on tumors incidence was found. "Although exposure... significantly decreases circulating melatonin, this is not associated with a significant effect on development or growth of DMBA-induced mammary tumors"

G50) M Mevissen et al: Exposure of DMBA-treated female rats in a 50-Hz, 50 milliT magnetic field: effects on mammary tumor growth, melatonin levels, and T lymphocyte activation. Carcinogenesis 17:903-910, 1996.
- Rats treated with DMBA (a breast cancer initiator) were exposed to a 50-Hz field at 50 microT for 91 days. 50-Hz exposure resulted in earlier appearance of tumors, but no increase in the number of animals with macroscopically-visible tumors. If both macroscopic and microscopic tumors are counted there is a possibly-significant increase in the number of animals with tumors in the exposed group. Exposure had no effect on melatonin levels.

G51) MA Morandi et al: Lack of an EMF-induced genotoxic effect in the Ames assay. Life Sciences 3:263-271, 1996.
- Bacteria (the Ames test) were exposed for 72 hours to 300 microT and/or 1.3 V/m) at 60-, 600- and 6000-Hz. No increased mutagenesis was observed for any types of ELF exposure

G52) O Cantoni et al: Effect of 50 Hz sinusoidal electric and/or magnetic fields on the rate of repair of DNA single strand breaks in cultured mammalian cells exposed to three different carcinogens: Methylmethane sulphonate, chromate and 254 nm UV radiation. Biochem Molec Biol Internat 38:527-533, 1996.
- Exposure of CHO cells to 50-Hz electric (0.2-20 kV/m) and/or magnetic (0.2 - 200 microT) fields had no effect on repair of single- or double-strand DNA breaks that had been induced by chemical carcinogen or UV radiation.

G53) WZ Fam and EL Mikhail: Lymphoma induced in mice chronically exposed to very strong low-frequency electromagnetic field. Cancer Letters 105:257-269, 1996.
- Mice were exposed for 3 generations to a 60-Hz field at 25 milliT (25,000 microT). The authors report an increased incidence of lymphoma. The experiments do not appear to have been conducted blind, and the control animals do not appear to have been housed under conditions comparable to those of the exposed animals.

G54) BM Reipert et al: Exposure to extremely low frequency magnetic fields has no effect on growth rate or clonogenic potential of multipotential progenitor cells. Growth Factors 13:205-217, 1996.
- Mouse hematopoietic stem cells were exposed to ambient conditions, with the geomagnetic field nulled, to "calcium ion cyclotron resonance" conditions (30 microT at 50-Hz plus a parallel 65 microT static field), and to a 6 microT field at 50-Hz. For exposures of 1, 4, 7 and 21 days, no effects on cell growth, cell cycle kinetics or clonogenic survival were observed. The authors conclude that "results so far lend no support to the hypothesis that exposure of hematopoietic progenitor cells to ELF [fields] leads to perturbation of their behavior in a manner consistent with magnetic field exposure having a role on leukemogenesis"

G55) EK Balcer-Kubiczek et al: Rodent cell transformation and immediate early expression following 60-Hz magnetic field exposure. Environ Health Perspec 104:1188-1198, 1996.
- Exposure of mammalian cells in two standard cell transformation systems to a 200 microT 60-Hz field for 24 hours produced no significant cell transformation. Even in the presence of a chemical promoter (TPA), exposure to the magnetic field did not influence cell transformation. Tests for effects 60-Hz fields on gene expression, ODC induction, apoptosis, and differentiation were also negative.

G56) J Miyakoshi et al: Increase in hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyl transferase gene mutations by exposure to high-density 50-Hz magnetic fields. Mutat Res 349:1109-1114, 1996.
- Cultured cells from a human melanoma were exposed to a 400,000 microT 50-Hz field for 1-20 hours and an increase in mutations were found.

G57) LB Sasser et al: Exposure to 60 Hz magnetic fields does not alter clinical progression of LGL leukemia in Fischer rats. Carcinogenesis 17:2681-2687, 1996.
- Rats were injected with leukemia cells and exposed to 2 or 1000 microT 60-Hz fields for 20 hours/day, 7 days per week. No magnetic field effects were found on leukemia progression or animal survival.

G58) A Suri et al: A 3 milliTesla 60 Hz magnetic field is neither mutagenic nor co-mutagenic in the presence of menadione and MNU in a transgenic rat cell line. Mutat Res 372:23-31, 1997.
- Rat embryo fibroblasts were exposed to a 3000 microT field for 120 hours, either alone of with co-exposure to one of two chemical mutagens (menidione, an alkylating agent; and N-methylnitrosourea, which operative via a free-radical mechanism). No enhancement of mutagenesis was seen.

G59) JRN McLean et al: The effect of 60-Hz magnetic fields on co-promotion of chemically induced skin tumors on SENCAR mice: A discussion of three studies. Environ Health Perspec 105:94-96, 1997.
- Three independent studies of skin tumor co-promotion by a 2000 microT 60-Hz field. Exposure was 6 hrs/day, 5 days/week for 23 weeks. Nonsignificant co-promotion was seen in one study, no effect in a second, and significant protection in the third.

G60) H Lai et al: Acute exposure to a 60 Hz magnetic field increases DNA strand breaks in rat brain cells. Bioelectromag 18:156-165, 1997.
- Rats were exposed to 100, 250 and 500 microT 60-Hz fields for 2 hours. Four hours after exposure, brain cells were isolated and an increased incidence of DNA strand breaks were found.

G61) YH Shen et al: The effects of 50-Hz magnetic field exposure on dimethylbenz(a)anthracene induced thymic lymphoma/leukemia in mice. Bioelectromag 18:360-364, 1997.
- Newborn mice were injected with chemical carcinogen, and then exposed to a 50-Hz sine field at 1000 microT Exposure began a 2 weeks of age and continued for 16 weeks at 3 hours/day and 6 days/week. Histopathological examination at 32 weeks showed no difference in lymphoma rates.

G62) D Jacobson-Kram et al: Evaluation of the potential genotoxicity of pulsed electric and electromagnetic field used for bone growth stimulation. Mutat Res 388:45-57, 1997.
- Study of genotoxic potential of two bone healing devices that produce pulsed ELF fields. Two exposure systems were tested, each at its normal and 10 times normal operating intensity. No effects were found on mutation in bacteria, chromosome aberrations in mammalian cells or transformation of mammalian cells.

G63) I Lagroye and JL Poncy: The effect of 50 Hz electromagnetic field on the formation of micronuclei in rodent cells exposed to gamma irradiation. Int J Rad Biol 72:249-254, 1997.
- Three normal rat cell lines were exposed to ionizing radiation and/or to a 100 microT 50-Hz field. Cells exposed to the magnetic field alone showed no increase in micronucleus formation. Two of three cell lines showed a slight, but statistically significant, increase in micronucleus formation after exposure to the highest dose of radiation plus the magnetic field.

G64) JD Saffer et al: Power frequency magnetic fields do not contribute to transformation of JB6 cells. Carcinogenesis 18:1365-1370, 1997.
- Mammalian cells were exposed to 60-Hz fields at 10 or 1100 microT for 14 days. No enhancement of transformation was observed. This is the same system used by West et al [G35, H29].

G65) S Singh et al: Mutagenic potential of benzo(a)pyrene and N-nitrodiethylamine is not affected by 50-Hz sinusoidal magnetic field. Electro Magnetobio 16:169-175, 1997.
- Mice were treated with either of two chemical carcinogens and exposed to 2000 or 10,000 microT 50-Hz fields. Another group was exposed to the fields alone. No enhancement of micronuclei formation was seen for fields alone (assay for genotoxic activity), and no enhancement of chemically-induced micronuclei was observed (assay for epigenetic activity).

G66) M Yasui et al: Carcinogenicity test of 50 Hz sinusoidal magnetic field in rats. Bioelectromag 18:531-540, 1997.
- Rats were exposed 23 hrs/day for 104 weeks to a 50-Hz field at 500 or 5000 microT. No effects were reported on survival, or on the incidence of any tumors, including leukemia, lymphomas or brain tumors.

G67) R Mandeville et al: Evaluation of the potential carcinogenicity of 60 Hz linear sinusoidal continuous wave magnetic fields in Fischer F344 rats, FASEB J 11:1127-1136, 1997.
- Rats were exposed for 108 weeks at 20 hrs/day to 60-Hz fields at 2, 20, 200 or 2000 microT. There were no effects on animal survival, solid tumor incidence or leukemia incidence. There was no increase in breast cancer and no brain tumors were noted in either exposed or control animals.

G68) MR Scarfi et al: Exposure to 100 Hz pulsed magnetic fields increases micronucleus frequency and cell proliferation in human lymphocytes. Bioelectrochem Bioenerg 43:77-81, 1997.
- Human lymphocytes were exposed for 72 hrs to 100-Hz pulsed fields at 1300 microT. In increase in micronucleus formation was observed.

G69) T Ekström et al: Mammary tumours in Sprague-Dawley rats after initiation with DMBA followed by exposure to 50 Hz electromagnetic fields in a promotional scheme. Cancer Letters 123:107-111, 1998.
- Rat were treated with a breast cancer carcinogen (DMBA) and exposed to intermittent (15 sec on-off) 50-Hz fields at 250 and 500 microT. Exposure was for 19-21 hrs per day for 25 weeks. No enhancement of DMBA-induced mammary tumors were observed.

G70) AW Harris et al: A test of lymphoma induction by long-term exposure of Eµ-Pim1 transgenic mice to 50-Hz magnetic fields. Rad Res 149:300-307, 1998.
- Lymphoma-prone mice were exposed to 50-Hz fields at 1, 100 or 1000 microT. Exposure was for 20 hrs/day for 18 months. The 1000 microT arm included both continuous exposure and a 15 min on-off cycle. No increase in lymphoma was seen in any exposure group.

G71) T Kumlin et al: Effects of 50 Hz magnetic fields on UV-induced skin tumourigenesis in ODC-transgenic and non-transgenic mice. Int J Rad Biol 73:113-121, 1998.
- Mice over-expressing ODC, and their normal counter-parts were exposed for 10.5 months to UV radiation and 50 Hz magnetic fields (100 microT continuous or 1.3-130 microT at varying intensities). UV production of skin tumors was weakly, but significantly, enhanced by exposure to the magnetic fields. The transgenic mice were not significantly more sensitive to magnetic fields.

G72A) GA Boorman, DL McCormick et al: Chronic toxicity/oncogenicity evaluation of 60 Hz (power frequency) magnetic fields in F344/N rats. Toxicol Pathol 27:267-278, 1999. [Also available as: Toxicology and carcinogenesis studies of 60-Hz magnetic fields in F344/N rats and B6C3F1 mice (Whole body exposure studies). Report No. TR 488, U. S. Department of Heath and Social Services, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, 1998].
- Male and female rats (100 per group) were exposed to 2, 200 or 1000 microT 60-Hz fields for 18.5 hours per day, 7 days per week for 106 weeks. There were two 1000 microT exposure groups, one with continuous exposure and one with intermittent (1 hr on, 1-hr off) exposures. No effects on survival or cancer incidence were seen. Exposure had no effect on the incidence of leukemia, brain tumors or breast cancer.

G72B) DL McCormick, GA Boorman et al: Chronic toxicity/oncogenicity evaluation of 60 Hz (power frequency) magnetic fields in B6C3F1 mice. Toxicol Pathol 27:279-285, 1999.[Also available as: Toxicology and carcinogenesis studies of 60-Hz magnetic fields in F344/N rats and B6C3F1 mice (Whole body exposure studies). Report No. TR 488, U. S. Department of Heath and Social Services, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, 1998].
- Male and female mice (100 per group) were exposed to 2, 200 or 1000 microT 60-Hz fields for 18.5 hours per day, 7 days per week for 106 weeks. There were two 1000 microT exposure groups, one with continuous exposure and one with intermittent (1 hr on, 1-hr off) exposures. No effects on survival were seen except for decreased survival of males in the 1000 microT continuous exposure group. No effect on cancer rates were seen expect for a slight increase in thyroid gland tumors in males in one exposure group. Exposure had no effect on the incidence of lymphoma, brain tumors or breast cancer, except for a decrease in lymphoma incidence in females in the 1000 microT continuous exposure group.

G73) GA Boorman, LE Anderson et al: Effect of 26 week magnetic field exposures in a DMBA initiation-promotion mammary gland model in Sprague-Dawley rats. Carcinogenesis 20:899-904, 1999. [Also available as: Studies of magnetic field promotion (DMBA initiation) in Sprague-Dawley rats (Gavage/whole body exposure studies). Report No. TR 489, U. S. Department of Heath and Social Services, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, 1998.]
- Groups of rats (100 each) were exposed to DMBA at three different doses and to 100 (50- and 60-Hz) and 500 microT (50-Hz) fields for 13-26 weeks (a total of 8 exposure groups). No promotion of DMBA-induced mammary tumors were observed in any group, except for a decreased incidence in rats exposed to 100 microT for 26 weeks. RRs ranged from 0.88 to 1.12.

G74) M Mevissen et al: Acceleration of mammary tumorigenesis by exposure of 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene-treated female rats in a 50-Hz, 100 microT field: Replication study. J Toxicol Environ Health 53:401-418, 1998.
- Rats were treated with a chemical carcinogen (DMBA) and exposed to a 100 microT field at 50-Hz for 91 days. Tumors developed earlier in the exposed animals, and at 91 days there were more animals with "macroscopically-visible" tumors in the exposed group (83%) than in the unexposed group (62%).

G75) BI Rapley et al: Influence of extremely low frequency magnetic fields on chromosomes and the mitotic cycle in Vicia faba L, the broad bean . Bioelectromag 19:152-161, 1998
- Exposure of bean sprouts (Vicia faba) to 50-, 60- or 75-Hz fields at 1500 microT for 3 days did not cause chromosome breaks.

G76) M Simkó et al: Effects of 50 Hz EMF exposure on micronucleus formation and apoptosis in transformed and nontransformed human cell lines. Bioelectromag 19:85-91, 1998.
- A human tumor cell line and a human normal cell line were exposed to 50-Hz fields at 100-1000 microT for 24, 48 or 72 hrs. Increased micronucleus formation was seen in the tumor cell line after 48 or 72 hr exposure to 800 and 1000 microT fields. No increases were seen after 24 hours, after lower field intensities or in the normal cell line.

G77) LB Sasser et al: Lack of a co-promoting effect of a 60 Hz magnetic field on skin tumorigenesis in SENCAR mice. Carcinogenesis 19:1617-1621, 1998.
- Mice were treated with a skin tumor carcinogen and a skin tumor promoter and exposed to a 60-Hz field at 2000 microT for 6 hours/day for 5 days per week and 23 weeks. There was no enhancement of skin tumor promotion.

G78) M Simkó et al: Micronucleus formation in human amnion cells after exposure to 50 Hz MF applied horizontally and vertically. Mutat Res 418:101-111, 1998.
- Human amniotic cells were exposed to 50-Hz fields at 1000 microT for 24, 48 or 72 hours and tested for increases in micronucleus incidence (a genotoxicity test). Four different exposure conditions were tested (two different coil designs, and both horizontal and vertical field orientations. "Significant" increases were seen in 4 of the 12 tested conditions, with no obvious pattern. Overall the increase was from 22±3 to 24±6 micronuclei per 1000. For cells exposed to a genotoxin (n-acetyl-p-aminophenol) exposure to the magnetic fields caused no additional genotoxicity (a test for epigenetic activity).

G79) J Walleczek, EC Shiu, et al: Increase in radiation-induced HPRT gene mutation frequency after nonthermal exposure to nonionizing 60 Hz electromagnetic fields. Radiat Res 151:489-497, 1999.
- Cells were exposed to ionizing radiation and/or a 12-hr exposure to 60-Hz fields at 230, 470 and 700 microT. A field-intensity related increase in radiation-induced mutations was observed. No effect was observed for the magnetic fields alone.

G80) JE Morris, LB Sasser et al: Clinical progression of transplanted large granular lymphocytic leukemia in Fischer 344 rats exposed to 60 Hz magnetic fields. Bioelectromag 20:48-56, 1999.
- Rats were implanted with leukemia and exposed to a 1000 microT field for 20 hr/day, 7 dy/wk. No effect on leukemia progression was observed.

G81) JE Snawder, RM Edwards et al: Effect of magnetic field exposure on anchorage-independent growth of a promoter-sensitive mouse epidermal cell line (JB6). Environ Health Perspec 107:195-198, 1999.
- Mouse cells were exposed for 10-14 days to a chemical promoter (TPA) and/or to 60-Hz fields at 100 or 960 microT. No magnetic fields effects were seen on cell transformation. The promoter TPA caused a dose-related increase in transformation, but the magnetic fields did not enhance this promotion.

G82) J DiGiovanni, DA Johnston et al: Lack of effect of a 60 Hz magnetic field on biomarkers of tumor promotion in the skin of SENCAR mice. Carcinogenesis 20:685-689, 1999.
- Mice were exposed to TPA (a skin tumor promoter) and/or 60-Hz fields at 2000 microT for 6 hrs/day, 5 days/week for 1-5 weeks. No effects on early biomarkers of promotion were observed.

G83) H Yaguchi, M Yoshida et al: Effect of high-density extremely low frequency magnetic fields on sister chromatic exchanges in mouse m5S cells. Mutat Res 440:189-194, 1999.
- Exposure of cells for 42 min to 60-Hz fields at 400,000 microT caused an increase in chromosome damage, but exposure at 5000 and 50,000 microT did not. Exposure at 400,000 microT did not enhance the chromosome damage caused by a chemical carcinogen.

G84) JT Babbitt, AI Kharazi et al: Hematopoietic neoplasia in C57BL/6 mice exposed to split-dose ionizing radiation and circularly polarized 60 Hz magnetic fields. Carcinogenesis 21:1379-1389, 2000.
- Mice were exposed for 28 months (at 18 hours/day) to a 1420 microT 60-Hz field, with exposure started at 4 weeks of age. Some animals were also exposed to X-rays. The magnetic field exposure had no effect on lymphoma incidence or animal survival. Magnetic field exposure did not enhance the radiation-induced increase in lymphoma incidence. Magnetic field exposure may have decreased the time required for lymphoma and radiation-induced lymphoma to develop.

G85) LE Anderson, GA Boorman et al: Effect of 13 week magnetic field exposures on DMBA-initiated mammary gland carcinomas in female Sprague-Dawley rats. Carcinogenesis 20:1615-1620, 1999.
Rats were exposed to 50-Hz field at 100 and 500 microT or a 60-Hz field at 100 microT for 18.5 hrs/day, 7 days/week, for 13 weeks. Some animals were also exposed to one of two doses of DMBA, a breast cancer carcinogen. At the higher DMBA dose almost all animals got cancer, so promotion cannot really be evaluated. At the lower dose of DMBA, no enhancement of breast cancer incidence was found at either 100 or 500 microT.

G86) S Thun-Battersby, M Mevissen et al: Exposure of Sprague-Dawley rats to a 50-Hertz, 100-microTesla magnetic field for 27 weeks facilitates mammary tumorigenesis in the 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene model of breast cancer. Cancer Res 59:3627-3633, 1999.
Rats ere exposed to a 50-Hz field at 100 microT for 24 hrs/day, 7 days/week, for 27 weeks. Some animals were also exposed to DMBA, a breast cancer carcinogen, but at a lower dose than used in prior studies by this group. Tumors developed earlier in the animals exposed to the magnetic field. The number of palpable tumors was non-significantly elevated at 26 weeks and the number of histopathologically-verified tumors was significantly increased.

G87) SC Gamble, H Wolff et al: Syrian hamster dermal cell immortalization is not enhanced by power line frequency electromagnetic field exposure. Br J Cancer 81:377-380, 1999.
- Hamster dermal cells were exposed to power-frequency (50 Hz?) field at 10, 100 or 1000 microT for 60 hours. Some cultures were also exposed to ionizing radiation. Exposure to the field did not induced immortalization (an indication of genotoxic activity), and did not enhance the degree of immortalization induced by ionizing radiation.

G88) A Kharazi, JT Babbitt, et al: Primary brain tumor incidence in mice exposed to split-dose ionizing radiation and circularly polarized 60 Hz magnetic fields. Cancer Letters 147:149-156, 1999.
- Mice were treated with ionizing radiation (3-5 Gy), life-time exposure to a 60-Hz field at 1400 microT or to both. Ionizing radiation alone enhanced the incidence of brain tumors. Exposure to the 60-Hz field did not induced excess brain tumors and did not enhance radiation induction of brain tumors.

G89) R Mandeville, E Franco al: Evaluation of the potential promoting effect of 60 Hz magnetic fields on N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea induced neurogenic tumors in female F344 rats. Bioelectromag 21:84-93, 2000.
- Rats exposed to a 60-Hz field (2, 20, 200 or 2000 microT) and to a brain tumor carcinogen. Animals were exposed to the carcinogen treatment in utero. Magnetic field exposure was for 20 hours per day beginning 2 days after carcinogen treatment and continuing for 65 weeks. No brain tumor promotion was observed.

G90) J Miyakoshi, M Yoshida et al: Exposure to extremely low frequency magnetic fields suppresses X-ray-induced transformation in mouse C3H10T1/2 cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 271:323-327,2000.
- Cells were exposed to 50 Hz fields at 5000-400,000 microT for 24 hours and/or to X-rays. Exposure to the magnetic field alone had no effect on transformation, but exposure to the magnetic field decreased X-ray induced transformation.

G91) L Devevey, C Patinot et al: Absence of the effects of 50Hz magnetic fields on the progression of acute myeloid leukaemia in rats. Int J Radiat Biol 76:853-862,2000.
- Rats with transplanted leukemia were exposed to 50-Hz fields at 100 microT for 18 hours/day, 7 days per week. Exposure continued until terminal leukemia developed. Exposure to the fields had no effect on tumor progression.

G92) J Miyakoshi, Y Koji et al: Long-term exposure to a magnetic field (5 milliT at 60 Hz) increases X-ray-induced mutations, J Radiat Res 40:13-21, 1999.
- Mammalian cells were exposed to 5000 microT 60-Hz fields for up to 6 weeks. Exposure did not affect mutation rates, but exposure for 1 week or longer increased the incidence of mutations induced by ionizing radiation.

G93) M Simkó, E Dopp and R Kriehuber: Absence of synergistic effects on micronucleus formation after exposure to electromagnetic fields and asbestos fibers in vitro, Toxicol Let 108:47-53, 1999.
- Exposure of cells to 1000 microT fields at 50 Hz increased the micronucleus frequency (a measure of genotoxicity) without affecting cell proliferation. Exposure to the field had no effect on the incidence of micronuclei induced by asbestos exposure (a measure of epigenetic activity).

G94) RM Ansari and TK Hei: Effects of 60 Hz extremely low frequency magnetic fields (EMF) on radiation- and chemical-induced mutagenesis in mammalian cells, Carcinogenesis 21:1221-1226, 2000.
- A mammalian cell line was exposed to a 100 microT 60-Hz field for 24 hours or 7 days with and without co-exposure to a chemical carcinogen or to ionizing radiation. Exposure to the field did not increase the mutation rate and did not increase the incidence of mutations induced by ionizing radiation or the chemical carcinogen.

G95) T Kikuchi, M Ogawa et al: Multigeneration exposure test of Drosophila melanogaster to ELF magnetic fields. Bioelectromag 19:335-340, 1998.
- Fruit flies were exposed to 500 or 5000 microT 50-Hz fields for 40 generations. No increase in mutations was observed.

G96) H Tateno, S Iijima et al: No induction of chromosome aberrations in human spermatozoa exposed to extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields. Mutat Res 414:31-35, 1998.
- Human sperm were exposed to a 20,000 microT field at 50-Hz for 2 hours, and no increase in the number of chromosome aberrations was observed

G97) KC Chow, WL Tung: Magnetic field exposure enhances DNA repair through the induction of DnaK/J synthesis. FEBS Lett 478:133-136, 2000.
- Bacteria were exposed to 50-Hz fields at 400-1200 microT for 1 hour and/or to chemicals that induce transformation. Exposure to the fields decreased the amount of chemically-induced DNA damage.

G98) G Chen, BL Upham et al: Effect of electromagnetic field exposure on chemically induced differentiation of Friend erythroleukemia cells. Environ Health Perspect 108:967-972, 2000.
- Leukemia cells were exposed to 60-Hz fields at 1-1000 microT. Inhibition of chemically-induced differentiation (an indication of possible epigenetic activity) was statistically significant at 5-1000 microT, but not at 1 or 2.5 microT. Proliferation was stimulated at 100 and 1000 microT.

G99) A Maes, M Collier et al: Cytogenetic effects of 50 Hz magnetic fields of different magnetic flux densities. Bioelectromag. 21:589-596, 2000.
- Human lymphocytes were exposed to 50-Hz fields at 62-2500 microT, either alone or in combination with a chemical carcinogen or with X-rays. Magnetic field exposure produced no consistent chromosome damage and did not enhance the genotoxic effects of the chemical carcinogen or the X-rays. The comet assay for DNA strand breaks also showed no magnetic field effects. No magnetic field effects on proliferation were observed.

G100) P Galloni, C Marino: Effects of 50 Hz magnetic field exposure on tumor experimental models. Bioelectromag. 21:608-614, 2000.
- Mouse mammary tumors were exposed to a 50-Hz field at 2000 microT with or without exposure to X-rays. Magnetic field exposure had no effect on tumor growth and did not modify the effects of exposure to ionizing radiation.

G101) S Nakasono, M Ikehata et al: A 50 Hz, 14 mT magnetic field is not mutagenic or co-mutagenic in bacterial mutation assays. Mut Res 471:127-134, 2000.
- Bacteria were exposed to a 14,000 microT field at 50 Hz for 48 hours. Exposure to the magnetic field was not mutagenic, did not enhance the mutagenicity of 8 chemical mutagens, and did not enhance the mutagenicity of UV radiation.

G102) AJ Heredia-Rojas, AO Rodríguez-De la Fuente et al: Cytological effects of 60 Hz magnetic fields on human lymphocytes in vitro: sister-chromatid exchanges, cell kinetics and mitotic rate. Bioelectromag 22:145-149,2001.
- Human lymphocytes were exposed to 60-Hz fields at 1000, 1500 or 2000 microT for 72 hours. Lymphocyte growth was slightly enhanced, but there was no effects on sister-chromatid exchanges (a test for genotoxic activity). When 2000 microT was combined with mitomycin-C (a chemical mutagen), proliferation was deceased, but there was no effect in SCEs (a test for epigenetic activity).

G103) LE Anderson, JE Morris et al: Large granular lymphocytic (LGL) leukemia in rats exposed to intermittent 60 Hz magnetic fields. Bioelectromag 22:185-193,2001.
- Rats with leukemia were exposed to a 1000 microT field (continuous or on/off at 3 min intervals) for 20 hrs/day and 7 days/week for up to 22 weeks. No effects on the progression of the leukemia were found.

G104) J Miyakoshi, M Yoshuda et al: Exposure to strong magnetic field at power frequency potentiates X-ray-induced DNA strand breaks. J Radiat Res 41:293-302,2000.
- Human tumor cells exposed to 5000, 50000 or 400000 microT (5-400 milliT) at 50 Hz for 30 minutes. Exposure to the magnetic field did not cause DNA strand breaks as measured by the COMET assay (a test for genotoxic activity); but did enhance the level of DNA strand breaks caused by high doses of ionizing radiation (a test for epigenetic activity).

G105) P Heikkinen, VM Kosma et al: Effects of 50-Hz magnetic fields on cancer induced by ionizing radiation in mice. Int J Radiat Biol 77:483-495,2001.
- A mouse study of the effects of 50-Hz magnetic fields on the development of cancer induced by ionizing radiation. Mice were exposed to X-rays, and then half were exposed continuously for 1.5 years to a 50-Hz fields that varied regularly from 1.3 to 13 to 130 microT. No effects on tumor incidence (including leukemia/lymphoma, skin tumors and mammary tumors) were found.

H1) WC Parkinson and CT Hanks: Experiments on the interaction of electromagnetic fields with mammalian systems. Biol Bull 176(S):170-178, 1989.
- A 3,000 microT 60-Hz field had no effects of mammalian cell growth. No effects on Calcium ion transport were seen under cyclotron resonance conditions, or under any conditions tested.

H3) R Goodman and A Shirley-Henderson: Transcription and translation in cells exposed to extremely low frequency EM fields. Bioelec Bioenerg 25:335-355, 1991.
- Pulsed and sinusoidal fields of different types and intensities caused alterations in transcription of genes, with evidence for frequency, intensity and duration windows.

H4) AV Prasad et al: Failure to reproduce increased calcium uptake in human lymphocytes at purported cyclotron resonance exposure conditions. Rad Environ Biophys 30:305-320, 1991.
- Study was unable to replicate the 1987 report of Liboff that calcium ion uptake was increased under cyclotron "resonance conditions".

H7) RP Liburdy et al: ELF magnetic fields, breast cancer, and melatonin: 60-Hz fields block melatonin's oncostatic action on ER+ breast cancer cell proliferation. J Pineal Res 14:89-97, 1993.
- Exposure to 0.2 or 1 microT 60-Hz fields did not affect the growth of human breast cancer cells in culture. Melatonin caused inhibition of growth that was blocked by a 1.2 microT field.

H8) M Kato et al: Effects of exposure to a circularly polarized 50-Hz magnetic field on plasma and pineal melatonin levels in rats. Bioelectromag 14:97-106, 1993.
- Rats were exposed to 1-250 microT fields for 6 weeks. Melatonin levels were decreased compared to non-concurrent controls, but not compared to concurrent sham-exposed controls.

H9) JM Lee et al: Melatonin secretion and puberty in female lambs exposed to environmental electric and magnetic fields. Biol Reproduc 49:857-864, 1993.
- Exposure to a 500 kV transmission line field (4 microT, 6 kV/m) had no effect on melatonin levels.

H10) AV Prasad et al: A test of the influence of cyclotron resonance exposures on diatom motility. Health Phys 66:305-312, 1994.
- The study was unable to replicate reports (McLeod et al, 1987; Smith et al, 1987) that certain combinations of ELF and static magnetic fields could influence diatom motility via an "cyclotron resonance" effect on calcium ions.

H11) M Kato et al: Horizontal or vertical 50-Hz, 1 microT magnetic fields have no effect on pineal gland or plasma melatonin concentration of albino rats. Neurosci Letters 168:205-208, 1994;
M Kato et al: Circularly polarized 50-Hz magnetic field exposure reduces pineal gland and blood melatonin concentrations of Long-Evans rats. Neurosci Letters 166:59-62, 1994;
M Kato et al: Recovery of nocturnal melatonin concentration takes place within one week following cessation of 50 Hz circularly polarized magnetic field exposure for six weeks. Bioelectromag 15:489-492, 1994
- Rats were exposed to a 1 microT 50-Hz field for 6 weeks. Nocturnal melatonin concentrations were reduced by 20-25% in two of the three studies.

H13) SM Yellon: Acute 60-Hz magnetic field exposure effects on the melatonin rhythm in the pineal gland and circulation of the adult Djungarian hamster. J Pineal Res 16:136-144, 1994.
- Adult hamsters were exposed at a 100 microT, 60-Hz field, for 15 minutes. In the first experiment this exposure reduced the duration and magnitude of the normal night-time rise in melatonin. In a replication 6 months later, the effects was much less dramatic, and in a third replication, no effect was found.

H14) A Lacy-Hulbert et al: No effect of 60 Hz electromagnetic fields on MYC or beta-actin expression in human leukemic cells. Rad Res 144:9-17, 1995.
- An attempt at replication of the Goodman and Henderson gene expression studies (e.g., H3) failed to find any effect of 0.57-100 microT 60 Hz fields on MYC and beta-actin expression

H15) JD Saffer and SJ Thurston: Short exposures to 60 Hz magnetic fields do not alter MYC expression in HL60 or Daudi cells. Rad Res 144:18-25, 1995.
- An attempt at replication of the Goodman and Henderson gene expression studies (e.g., H3) failed to find any effect of 5.7 microT 60 Hz fields on MYC expression.

H16) JM Lee et al: Melatonin and puberty in female lambs exposed to EMF: a replicate study. Bioelectromag 16:119-123, 1995.
- A replicate of an earlier study [H9] that has found no effect on melatonin levels in sheep penned under a 500 kV line. In the replicate 15 lambs were exposed to a field that averaged 6.3 kV/m and 3.77 microT for 10 months. No effects on night-time melatonin were found. The sensitivity of the study was such that a 1 hr change in the duration of the night time elevation or a 10% change in the mean melatonin level during the night would have been detectable.

H17) P Hojevik et al: Ca^2+ Ion transport through patch-clamped cells exposed to magnetic fields . Bioelectromag 16:33-40, 1995.
- Calcium ion transport through patch-clamped cell membranes was measured during exposure to combinations of AC (21 microT at 10-23 Hz) and DC magnetic fields (21 microT) under "cyclotron resonance" conditions. No effects on ion transport were observed.

H18) M Mevissen et al: In vivo exposure of rats to a weak alternating magnetic field increases ornithine decarboxylase activity in the mammary gland by a similar extent as the carcinogen DMBA. Cancer Letters 90:207-214, 1995.
- Rats were exposed for 6 weeks to a 50-Hz sinusoidal field at 50 microT or to DMBA, a known carcinogen. Both the magnetic field exposure and the DMBA exposure caused a similar increase in the activity of ornithine decarboxylase (ODC) in mouse mammary tissue, an enzyme which frequency rises after exposure of animals to tumor promoters.

H19) J Bakos et al: Sinusoidal 50 Hz, 500 microT magnetic field has no acute effect on urinary 6-sulphatoxymelatonin in Wistar rats. Bioelectromag 16:377-380, 1995.
- Rats were exposed to a vertical 50-Hz field at 5 or 50 microT 24 hrs/day for 5 days. No effects on melatonin production were found.

H20) B Selmaoui and Y Touitou: Sinusoidal 50-Hz magnetic fields depress rat pineal NAT activity and serum melatonin. Role of duration and intensity of exposure . Life Sciences 57:1351-1358, 1995
- Rats were exposed to 50-Hz sine fields at 1, 10 or 100 microT for 12 hours, or for 30 days at 18 hrs/day. Decreased nocturnal melatonin was observed for 30 day exposures at 10 and 100 microT (about 40% decrease), and 12 hr exposure at 100 microT (about 20% decrease). No effects were observed at 1 microT.

H21) Vijayalaxmi et al: Marked reduction of radiation-induced micronuclei in human blood lymphocytes pretreated with melatonin. Rad Res 143:102-106, 1995.
- Melatonin reduced the incidence of radiation-induced micronuclei formation in cultured human lymphocytes. The effect was equivalent to that produced by other known radioprotectors.

H22) H Desjobert et al: Effects of 50 Hz magnetic fields on C-myc transcript levels in non-synchronized and synchronized human cells. Bioelectromag 16:277-283, 1995.
- An attempt at replication of the Goodman and Henderson gene expression studies (e.g., [H3]). Human lymphoid and leukemia cell lines were exposed to 60-Hz fields at 10 or 1000 microT for 1-72 hours. No statistically significant effects on c-myc transcript levels were found in either synchronized and asynchronous cells.

H23) KK Murthy et al: Initial studies on the effects of combined 60 Hz electric and magnetic field exposure on the immune system of nonhuman primates. Bioelectromag Suppl 3:93-102, 1995.
- Exposure of baboons to 60-Hz fields at 6 kV/m plus 50 microT or at 30 kV/m plus 100 microT [12 hours/day for 6 weeks] produced no consistent effects on the immune system

H24) WR Rogers et al: Regularly scheduled, day-time, slow-onset 60 Hz electric and magnetic field exposure does not depress serum melatonin concentration in nonhuman primates. Bioelectromag Suppl 3:111-118, 1995;
WR Rogers et al: Rapid-onset/offset, variably scheduled 60 Hz electric and magnetic field exposure reduces nocturnal serum melatonin concentration in nonhuman primates. Bioelectromag Suppl 3:119-122, 1995.
- Exposure of baboons to 60-Hz fields at 6 kV/m plus 50 microT or at 30 kV/m and 100 microT [12 hours/day for 6 weeks] produced no evidence of any effect on melatonin levels. Fields were ramped slowly on and off, so that no transients occurred. In a two-animal pilot experiment the fields were turned on and off rapidly and in an irregular pattern, hence treating transients. A possibly significant decrease in night-time melatonin was seen in this pilot experiment.

H25) DL Henshaw et al: Enhanced deposition of radon daughter nuclei in the vicinity of power frequency electromagnetic fields. Int J Rad Biol 69:25-38, 1996.
- The authors report that radon daughters (the source of radiation exposure from radon) in normal room air are attracted to power frequency electric (not magnetic) field sources. They go on to speculate that this could provide a mechanism for an increase in childhood leukemia in residence near powerlines, but provide no credible explanation of how this could occur.

H26) S Engstrom: Dynamic properties of Lednev's parametric resonance mechanism. Bioelectromag 17:58-70, 1996.
- Further development of the Lednev and Blackman-Blanchard model. The author concludes that the derivation of the Blackman-Blanchard model is inconsistent. "the main obstacles we encounter [with these models] are thermal and electromagnetic noise. Had it not been for experimental evidence showing effects for very weak fields, one would be tempted to reject out of hand any theory that has to shield its mechanism from the destructive bombardment of intrinsic noise at the level required... as long as no other theory provides a better framework...one should be willing to accept some far-fetched assumptions".

H27) NA Cridland et al: Effects of 50 Hz magnetic field exposures on the rate of DNA synthesis by normal human fibroblasts. Int J Rad Biol 69:503-511, 1996.
- Normal human fibroblasts were exposed for 30 hours to 50-Hz fields at 20 microT to 20 milliT. No effects on DNA synthesis were observed.

H28) JW Stather et al: Comment on: "Enhanced deposition of radon daughter nuclei in the vicinity of power frequency electromagnetic fields". Int J Rad Biol 69:645-649, 1996.
- "the suggestion [by Henshaw et al] that the effect of electric fields on short-lived radon decay products could provide a mechanism linking exposure to electromagnetic fields with the development of cancer seems most unlikely". In summary the critique is that:
a) Henshaw et al have not demonstrated a mechanism whereby electric fields could increase exposure by radon decay products;
b) the proposed mechanism would produce lung cancer not leukemia, and the residential epidemiology studies have not found excess lung cancer;
c) the epidemiology suggests an association with the magnetic field, not the electric field as proposed by Henshaw et al."

H29) RW West et al: Anchorage-independent growth and JB6 cells exposed to 60 Hz magnetic fields at several flux densities. Bioelectrochem Bioenerg 39:175-179, 1996.
- Cells showed evidence for neoplastic transformation when exposed to 1, 10 and 100 microT fields at 60-Hz. The increase in growth is essentially independent of field strength.

H30) SM Yellon: 60-Hz magnetic field exposure effects on the melatonin rhythm and photoperiod control of reproduction. Am J Physiol 270:E816-E821, 1996.
- Hamsters were exposed to 100 microT 60-Hz fields for 15 minutes at 2 hours before the onset of the dark period. Single exposures resulted in a decrease in night-time melatonin levels, but daily exposures had lead to an increase in night-time melatonin levels.

H31) H Truong et al: Photoperiod control of the melatonin rhythm and reproductive maturation in the juvenile Djungarian hamster: 60-Hz magnetic field exposure effects. Biol Reproduc 55:455-460, 1996.
- Juvenile hamsters were exposed to a 100 microT field for 15 minutes, 2 hours before the start of the dark period. Reproductive maturation was not affected, and no consistent effect on nocturnal melatonin levels were found.

H32) RV House et al: Immune function and host defense in rodents exposed to 60-Hz magnetic fields. Fundam Appl Toxicol 34:228-239, 1996.
- Mice were exposed to 60-Hz fields at 2, 200 or 1000 microT or to an intermittent 1000 microT field, for 18.5 hours per day. No effects on a broad range of immune system functions were observed.

H33) L Tremblay et al: Differential modulation of natural and adaptive immunity in Fischer rats exposed for 6 weeks to 60 Hz linear sinusoidal continuous-wave magnetic fields. Bioelectromag 17:373-383, 1996.
- Rats were exposed to 60-Hz fields at 2, 20, 200 and 2000 microT, for 20 hrs per day for 6 weeks. Some effects on immune parameters were seen after 6 weeks of exposure in the 200 and 2000 microT groups. No significant effects were seen at 2 or 20 microT.

H34) M Niehaus et al: Growth retardation, testicular stimulation, and increased melatonin synthesis by weak magnetic fields (50 Hz) in Djungarian hamsters, Phodopus sungorus. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 234:707-711, 1997.
- Hamsters were exposed to a 50-Hz sinusoidal field at 450 microT or to a 50-Hz pulsed field at 360 microT. Exposure was for 24 hrs per day for 56 days. The sinusoidal field has no effect on night-time melatonin, but the pulsed field cause an increase in night-time melatonin.

H35) H Truong et al: Effect of various acute 60 Hz magnetic field exposures on the nocturnal melatonin rise in the adult Djungarian hamster. J Pineal Res 22:177-183, 1997.
- Djungarian hamsters were exposed to 60-Hz fields at 10 or 100 microT continuously for 15 minutes, or to 100 microT intermittently (1 min on-off cycles) for 15 or 60 minutes. None of the exposure conditions had any effect on night-time melatonin levels. The authors conclude that "effects on the nocturnal melatonin rhythm that have been attributed to magnetic field exposures... may be due to inherent variability in the amplitude of the nighttime rise that is unrelated to treatment..."

H36) GH Harrison et al: Kinetics of gene expression following exposure to 60 Hz, 2 milliT magnetic fields in three human cell lines. Bioelectrochem Bioenerg 43:1-6, 1997.
- Three different cells lines were exposed to a 60-Hz field at 2000 microT for 24 hours. No effects on gene expression (including oncogene expression) could be found.

H37) C Dees et al: Effects of 60-Hz fields, estradiol and xenoestrogens on human breast cancer cells. Rad Res 146:444-452, 1996
- Growth-arrested breast cancer cells were exposed to 60-Hz fields at 1.2, 100 or 900 microT for 2-20 hours. No stimulation of cell growth occurred.

H38) J Nafziger et al: Investigation of the effects of 50 Hz magnetic fields on purified human hematopoietic progenitors, Life Sciences 61:1935-1946, 1997.
- Human bone marrow stem cells were exposed to 10 Hz fields for 3 days at 10 or 1000 microT. No effects on cell growth or cell survival were seen.

H39) TM John et al: 60 Hz magnetic field exposure and urinary 6-sulphatoxymelatonin levels in the rat. Bioelectromag 19:172-180, 1998.
- Rats were exposed to a 60-Hz field at 1000 microT. In the first set of experiments, exposure was for 10 or 42 days at 20 hrs/day. In the second set of experiments, exposure was to an intermittent field (1 min on-off cycles) for 1 hr or for 20 hrs/day on 2 consecutive days. No effect on nocturnal melatonin levels were observed.

H40) DE Jeffers: Comment on the paper: High-voltage overhead lines and radon daughter deposition. Int J Rad Biol 73:579-582, 1998.
- "although the phenomena demonstrated by Henshaw et al are interesting, they are far from demonstrating a hazard from man-made electrical fields. Their own data show that DC fields are far more effective in producing [radon-containing] aerosol plate-out than AC fields. The DC fields that occur naturally and the intensity of man-made AC field strengths are well documented and lead to the view that, even for people who are occupationally exposed to high average AC fields, the additional plate-out is unlikely to exceed a few per cent. Overhead lines screen the natural fields in their vicinity and so their presence will tend to reduce rather than enhance radon daughter deposition".

H41) A Panzer et al: Melatonin has no effect on the growth, morphology or cell cycle of human breast cancer (MCF-7), cervical cancer (HeLa), osteosarcoma (MG-63) or lymphoblastoid (TK6) cells. Cancer Letters 122:17-23, 1998.
- Melatonin has no effect on the growth of human breast cancer, cervical cancer, osteosarcoma or lymphoblastoid cells. The growth-inhibitor effect of melatonin appears to be restricted to a special-selected "melatonin-sensitive" breast cancer cell line.

H42) SM Yellon et al: Melatonin rhythm onset in the adult Siberian hamster: Influence of photoperiod but not 60-Hz magnetic field exposure on melatonin content in the pineal gland and in circulation. J Biol Rhythms 13:52-59, 1998.
- In Siberian hamsters high exposure at night had effects on melatonin levels, but neither acute (100 microT for 15 minutes) nor chronic (100 microT, 15 minutes/nights for 14 or 21 days) exposure to 50-Hz fields had any effect on melatonin levels.

H43) W Löscher et al: Exposure of female rats to a 100 microT 50 Hz magnetic field does not induced consistent changes in nocturnal levels of melatonin. Rad Res 150:557-567, 1998.
- Exposure of female rats to a 100 microT 50-Hz magnetic field for 1 day, or for 1, 2, 4, 8 or 13 weeks did not induced consistent changes in nocturnal levels of melatonin.

H44) EK Balcer-Kubiczek et al: BIGEL analysis of gene expression in HL60 cells exposed to X rays or 60 Hz magnetic fields. Rad Res 150:663-672, 1998.
- Mammalian cells were exposed to 60-Hz fields at 2000 microT or to X-rays (used as a positive control). Magnetic field exposure has no significant effect on gene expression in the 2000 genes studies, but x-rays caused changes in 18 of them.

H45) YL Zhao, PG Johnson et al: Increased DNA synthesis in INIT/10T1/2 cells after exposure to a 60 Hz magnetic field: A magnetic-field or a thermal effect? Radiat Res 151:201-208, 1999.
- Mouse fibroblasts were exposed to 100-800 microT fields at 60 Hz, and an increase in DNA synthesis was observed. The same effect was seen for sham exposures. The effect was due to a 0.1-0.8 °C rise in temperature cause by the double-wound coils used for sham exposures.

H46) BW Wilson, KS Matt et al: Effects of 60 Hz magnetic field exposure on the pineal and hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis in Siberian hamster (Phodopus sungorus). Bioelectromag 20:224-232, 1999.
- Siberian hamsters were exposed to 50 or 100 microT 60-Hz fields for in a variety of acute and continuous exposure schedules. Some exposure regimens at 100 microT caused a decrease in nocturnal melatonin, but the one test at 50 microT showed no effect.

H47) P Heikkinen, T Kumlin et al: Chronic exposure to 50-Hz magnetic fields or 900-MHz electromagnetic fields does not alter nocturnal 6-hydroxymelatonin sulfate secretion in CBA/S mice. Electro Magnetobio 18:33-42, 1999..
- Mice were exposed for 17 months to 50-Hz fields at 1.3, 13 or 130 microT for 24 hrs/day. No effects on melatonin were found.

H48) B Selmaoui and Y Touitou: Age-related differences in serum melatonin and pineal NAT activity and in the response of rat pineal to a 50-Hz magnetic field. Life Sciences 64:2291-2297, 1999.
- Aged and young rats were exposed to 100 microT fields at 50-Hz for 1 week at 18 hrs/day. A small decrease in serum melatonin was found in the young, but not in the old rats.

H49) J Bakos, N Nagy et al: Urinary 6-sulphatoxymelatonin excretion of rats is not changed by 24 hours of exposure to a horizontal 50-Hz, 100-milliT magnetic field. Electro Magnetobio 18:23-31, 1999.
- Exposure of rats to 50-Hz fields for 48 hours at 1 or 100 microT produced no changes in excretion of melatonin metabolites.

H50) LW Cress, RD Owen et al: Ornithine decarboxylase activity in L929 cells following exposure to 60 Hz magnetic fields. Carcinogenesis 20:1025-1030, 1999.
- Exposure of fibroblasts to a 10 microT 60-Hz field had no effect on the activity of ornithine decarboxylase (ODC), an enzyme that is associated with cell proliferation. This is a failure to replicate the results reported by Litovitz et al. (also see H51)

H51) AB Desta, RD Owen et al: Ornithine decarboxylase activity in developing chick embryos after exposure to 60-Hertz magnetic fields. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 265:211-213, 1999.
- Eggs were exposed to 60-Hz field at 60 microT for 15-28 hrs, with no effects on ODC. This is another attempt to replicate work of Litovitz et al.

H52) AP Fews, DL Henshaw et al: Increased exposure to pollutant aerosols under high voltage power lines. Int J Radiat Biol 75:1505-1521, 1999.
- The authors' model predicts that for an individual spending 10% of their time under a high-voltage line, skin deposition of radon daughters would be increased by a factor of 1.2-2.0. The authors argue that this model shows that "associations between childhood cancer and power (transmission) lines are causal and are due to environmental pollutants near power lines, notably vehicle exhausts".

H53) AP Fews, DL Henshaw et al: Corona ions from powerlines and increased exposure to pollutant aerosols. Int J Radiat Biol 75:1523-1531, 1999.
- The authors argue that air ionizations caused by high-voltage power lines would lead to increased lung deposition of aerosols, including carcinogens from auto exhaust.

H54) D Jeffers: Effects of wind and electric fields on 218Po deposition from the atmosphere. Int J Radiat Biol 75:1533-1539, 1999.
- In response to the papers by Fews et al [G88, G89], Jeffers agrees that enhanced deposition of aerosols "are to be expected at very high fields", but that the actual exposure of individuals to such fields is so limited that an actual increase in exposure to radon daughters would be unlikely near powerlines.

H55) LI Loberg, WR Engdahl et al: Expression of cancer-related genes in human cells exposed to 60 Hz magnetic fields. Radiat Res 153:679-684,2000.
- Human breast cells and human leukemia cells were exposed to 60-Hz fields at 10 or 1000 microT for 24 hours. Expression of 588 "cancer-related" genes were assessed. The expression of several genes were increased or decreased in individual experiments, but no effects could be replicated or shown to be related to exposure intensity. According to the authors: "These studies... provide no support for the hypothesis that [exposure to power-frequency fields] alters the expression of genes that are involved in cancer development."

H56) EK Balcer-Kubiczek, GH Harrison et al: Expression analysis of human HL60 cells exposed to 60 Hz square- or sine-wave magnetic fields. Radiat Res 153:670-678,2000.
- Human leukemia cells were exposed to 60-Hz sinusoidal or square waves at 2000 microT for 3 or 24 hours. Square waves were used because they contain harmonics. No reproducible effects on gene expression were seen in the 960 genes analyzed (including oncogenes and heat shock genes).

H57) LI Loberg, WR Engdahl et al: Cell viability and growth in a battery of human breast cancer cell lines exposed to 60 Hz magnetic fields. Radiat Res 153:725-728,2000.
- Breast cancer cell lines were exposed to 60-Hz fields at 1000 microT for 72 hours. Exposure had no effect on cell growth, cell viability, or cell killing by a retinoid.

H58) CA Morehouse and RD Owen: Exposure to low-frequency electromagnetic fields does not alter HSP70 expression or HSF-HSE binding in HL60 cells. Radiat Res 153:658-662,2000.
- Human leukemia cells were exposed to 60-Hz fields at 6-8 microT for 20 minutes. No effects on gene expression were found for oncogenes or heat shock protein.

H59) M Wei, M Guizzetti et al: Exposure to 60-Hz magnetic fields and proliferation of human astrocytoma cells in vitro. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 162:166-176,2000.
- At 120 microT it took 6 hours to see an effect on DNA synthesis. For a 24 hr exposure there was no effect on DNA synthesis at 60 microT, but a small effect at 90 and 120 microT.

H60) S Nakasono and H Saiki: Effect of ELF magnetic fields on protein synthesis in Escherichia coli K12, Radiat Res 154:208-216, 2000.
- Bacteria were exposed to 5-100 Hz fields at 7800 - 14,000 microT for 6.5-16 hours. Some cells were also exposed to heat stress. No magnetic field related changes were seen in the synthesis of a wide range of "stress" proteins including "heat shock" proteins.

H61) J Swanson, DE Jeffers: Comment on the papers: Increased exposure to pollutant aerosols under high voltage power lines; and Corona ions from power lines and increased exposure to pollutant aerosols. Int J Radiat Biol 76:1685-1693, 2000.
- According to the authors: "Fews et al [H52] have shown that increased deposition of small air ions on the skin does occur in the high electric fields which are found in limited areas near high-voltage power lines. However, they appear to us to exaggerate the consequences for individuals, and their suggestion that it leads to a material health risk seem to be speculation, not substantiated by evidence"; and further that: "Fews et al [H53] have confirmed pervious observations that high voltage powerlines produce ions that can be blown downwind, but they do not appear to have shown that when the ions do reach ground level that there would be any significant health consequences."

H62) CF Blackman, SG Benane et al: The influence of 1.2 micro, 60 Hz magnetic fields on melatonin- and tamoxifen-induced inhibition of MCF-7 cell growth. Bioelectromag 22:122-128,2001.
- The investigators report that they have been able to replicate the findings of Liburdy [H7], that a 1.2 microT 60-Hz field could reduce the inhibitory action of melatonin on breast cancer cells in cell culture.

J) Studies of Power-Frequency Fields and Reproductive Toxicity

J1) LJ Dlugosz et al: Congenital defects and electric bed heating in New York State: A register-based case-control study. Am J Epidem 135:1000-1011, 1992.
- A case-control study that found no statistically significant relationship between the use of electric bed heating and any type of congenital defects.

J4) H Huuskonen et al: Effects of low-frequency magnetic fields on fetal development in rats. Bioelectromag 14:205-213, 1993.
- 36 microT 50-Hz field has no significant effect on fetal development in rats.

J5) J Juutilainen et al: Early pregnancy loss and exposure to 50-Hz magnetic fields. Bioelectromag 14:229-236, 1993.
- Case-control study of early pregnancy loss and residential exposure to 50 Hz fields (fields measured at the front door) which found an increase in the rate of early pregnancy loss in exposed cases.

J6) E Robert: Birth defects and high voltage power lines - An exploratory study based on registry data. Reproduc Toxicol 7:283-287, 1993.
- Case-control study of the association between maternal residential proximity to power line magnetic fields and congenital anomalies which found no excess malformations, and a lower rate of skeletal and cardiac malformations in the exposed group.

J8) M Mevissen et al: Effects of static and time-varying (50-Hz) magnetic fields and reproduction and fetal development in rats. Teratology 50:229-237, 1994.
- Mated rats were exposed to a 30 milliT static or 50-Hz field from day 1 to day 20 of pregnancy. No adverse effects were seen in dams. "The increased fetal loss during static magnetic field exposure suggests that static magnetic fields of such high flux density may induce embryotoxic effects, while 50-Hz magnetic field exposure does not seem to be associated with any severe reproductive risks".

J9) MB Bracken et al: Exposure to electromagnetic fields during pregnancy with emphasis on electrically-heated beds: Association with birth weight and intrauterine growth retardation. Epidemiology 6:263-270, 1995.
- Case-control study of fetal defects and electrically-heated beds. Exposure to power-frequency fields was found to have no important relationship to low birth weight or fetal growth retardation. Also unrelated to fetal defects were VDT use, exposure to fields of greater than 0.20 microT, and wire code.

J10) DK Li et al: Electric blanket use during pregnancy in relation to the risk of congenital urinary tract anomalies among women with a history of subfertility. Epidemiology 6:485-489, 1995.
- Case-control study of infants with known chromosomal abnormalities. No overall association with VDT, electric blanket or electrically heated water beds were found. Subgroup analysis identified a possible association in women with a history of subfertility whose exposure was first trimester.

J12) H Huuskonen et al: Teratogenic and reproductive effects of low-frequency magnetic fields. Mutat Res 410:167-183, 1998.
- "The epidemiologic evidence does not, taken as a whole, suggest strong associations between exposure to ELF magnetic fields and adverse reproductive outcome. An effect at high levels of exposure cannot be excluded... Animal studies do not suggest strong effects on embryonal development or reproduction. If effects exist, only a small percentage of embryos is affected."

J13) H Huuskonen et al: Effects of low-frequency magnetic fields on fetal development in CBA/Ca mice. Bioelectromag 19:477-485, 1998.
- Pregnant mice were exposed to a 50-Hz field at 13 or 130 microT for 24 hrs/day from 0-10 days of pregnancy. No maternal effects were observed, including no increase in bone marrow erythrocyte micronuclei (a test for genotoxicity) and no effect on fertility. No increase in major or minor malformations were found in the fetuses. A possibly significant increase in fetal skeletal anomalies was seen, and according to the authors, "the significance of these minor changes for human health risk assessment are not known".

J14) BM Ryan, RR Symanski et al: Multi-generation reproductive toxicity assessment of 60-Hz magnetic fields using a continuous breeding protocol in rats. Teratology 59:156-162, 1999.
- Rats exposed for 3 generations to 60-Hz fields at 2, 2000 or 10,000 microT. Exposure was for 18.5 hrs/dy and was continuous except at 10,000 microT where both continuous and 1 hr on-off protocols were used. No toxicity was found; in particular, there were no effects on fetal viability, litter weight, sex ratio or fertility.

J15) RL Brent: Reproductive and teratologic effects of low-frequency electromagnetic fields: A review of in vivo and in vitro studies using animal models. Teratology 59:261-286, 1999.
- "Chick embryo studies are of little assistance to the epidemiologist or clinician in determining whether [power-frequency fields] represent a hazard to the human embryo, and the results are, in any event, inconsistent. On the other hand, the studies involving nonhuman mammalian organisms dealing with fetal growth, congenital malformations, embryonic loss and neurobehavioral development were predominantly negative and are therefore not supportive of the hypothesis that [power-frequency field] exposures result in reproductive toxicity."

J16) E Robert: Intrauterine effects of electromagnetic fields - (low frequency, mid-frequency RF, and microwaves): Review of epidemiologic studies. Teratology 59:292-298, 1999.
- "There is no convincing data that [electromagnetic field exposure] of the sort pregnant women or potential fathers meet in occupational or daily life exposures does any harm to the human reproductive process... The matter of possible effects cannot be considered closed, but until our understanding of the biologically important parameters of exposure [to electromagnetic fields] is stronger, design of new studies will be difficult and small epidemiologic studies are unlikely to provide definitive answers and should not be given high priority."

J17) BM Ryan, M Polen et al: Evaluation of the development toxicity of 60 Hz magnetic fields and harmonic frequencies in Sprague-Dawley rats. Radiat.Res. 153:637-641,2000.
- Pregnant rats were exposed to 180 Hz fields (the third harmonic of power-frequency) either alone or in combination with 60 Hz fields. Exposure was at 200 microT for 18.5 hours from days 6-19 of pregnancy. No significant defects in fetal development were observed.

J18) N Henrik, I Hjollund et al: Extremely low frequency magnetic fields and fertility: a follow up study of couples planning first pregnancies, Occup Environ Med 56:253-255, 1999.
- Occupational exposure to power-frequency fields had no effect on fertility in males or females, but the number of couples studied was too small to detect a small effect.

J19) GM Lee, RR Neutra et al: The use of electric bed heaters and the risk of clinically recognized spontaneous abortion. Epidemiology 11:406-415, 2000.
- A study of spontaneous abortions and the use of electric bed heaters (blankets and water beds) during pregnancy. No association was observed and no exposure-response trend was evident. Fields from the devices ranged from 0.07-2.0 microT at the body surface and from 0.05-0.48 microT at the uterus.

J20) S Cecconi, G Gualtier et al: Evaluation of the effects of extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields on mammalian follicle development. Hum Reprod 15:2319-2325, 2000.
- Mouse follicular (egg) cells were exposed to 33- or 50-Hz fields pulsed (square-wave) at 1500 microT for up to 5 days. Some effects on cell growth and development were found after 4-5 days of exposure.

K1) J Walleczek: Electromagnetic field effects on cells of the immune system: the role of calcium signaling. FASEB J 6:3177-3185, 1992.
- Review of ELF effects on the immune system and the possible role of calcium. Suggests that the threshold for proliferation effects for 50/60 Hz fields is between 200 and 5,000 microT.

K2) J McCann et al: The genotoxic potential of electric and magnetic fields: an update. Mutat Res 411:45-86, 1998.
- Review of 78 published studies of static and power-frequency fields. "The preponderance of evidence suggests that [power-frequency] electric and magnetic fields do not have genotoxic potential". Of the 32 separate reports of genotoxic effects "none have been independently confirmed [and] to date the few attempts to replicate positive results have failed".

K3) JC Murphy et al: Power-frequency electric and magnetic fields: A review of genetic toxicology. Mut Res 296:221-240, 1993.
- "Considering the total body of available information, there is little evidence that exposure to [power-frequency electric or magnetic fields] directly causes genetic changes in biological systems."

K4) W Loscher and M Mevissen: Animal studies on the role of 50/60-Hz magnetic fields in carcinogenesis. Life Sci 54:1531-1543, 1994.
- Review of published and unpublished animals studies. "If 50/60-Hz magnetic fields are truly associated with an increased risk of cancer, then these fields must act as a promoter or co-promoter of cancer... The existing experimental evidence is still insufficient for discerning a cause-effect relationship for exposure and human disease or injury".

K5) W Loscher et al: Linear relationship between flux density and tumor co-promoting effect of prolonged magnetic field exposure in a breast cancer model. Cancer Letters 96:175-180, 1995.
- Summary of the authors' own studies of the promotion of chemically-induced breast cancer in rats by 50-Hz magnetic fields. The authors claim a highly significant linear correlation between the degree of promotion and the strength of the magnetic fields. See Q16E for a discussion of this claim.

K6) JE Moulder: Biological studies of power-frequency fields and carcinogenesis. IEEE Eng Med Biol 15 (Jul/Aug):31-49, 1996.
- "the laboratory data on power-frequency fields does not provide any real support for an association between exposure and cancer. In fact, given the relative weakness of the epidemiology, combined with the extensive and unsupportive laboratory studies and the biophysical implausibility of interactions at relevant field strengths, it is often difficult to see why there is still any scientific controversy over the issue of power-frequency fields and cancer"

K7) J McCann, R Kavet et al: Assessing the potential carcinogenic activity of magnetic fields using animal models. Environ Health Perspect 108:79-100,2000.
- Update of 1997 review, covering 29 new reports. The authors conclude that "long-term exposure to continuous 50- or 60-Hz fields in the range of 2-5000 microT is unlikely to result in carcinogenesis in rats or mice.

K8) GA Boorman, DL McCormick et al: Magnetic fields and mammary cancer in rodents: A critical review and evaluation of published literature. Radiat Res 153:617-626,2000.
- "We review the results of animal studies that are relevant to identifying possible increases in breast cancer risk resulting from exposure to 50 or 60 Hz magnetic fields... The totality of rodent data does not support the hypothesis that power-frequency magnetic-field exposure enhances mammary cancer in rodents, nor does it provide experimental support for possible epidemiological associations between magnetic-field exposure and increased breast cancer risk."

K9) GA Boorman, RD Owen et al: Evaluation of in vitro effects of 50 and 60 Hz magnetic fields in regional EMF exposure facilities. Radiat Res 153:648-657,2000.
- In the US, regional exposure facilities were established to investigate major in vitro effects of power-frequency fields that has been reported in the literature.. These included effects on gene expression, intracellular calcium, colony growth in soft agar, and ornithine decarboxylase activity. The labs that has first reported the effects provided relevant experiment details. In nearly all experiments, no effects of magnetic-field exposure were found. According to the authors" "Studies of subtle effects require extraordinary efforts to confirm that the effect can be attributed to the applied exposure."

K10) GA Boorman, CN Rafferty et al: A review of leukemia and lymphoma incidence in rodents exposure to low-frequency magnetic fields. Radiat Res 627-636,2000.
- "Numerous animal studies have evaluated the potential association between magnetic-field exposure and leukemia... The combined animal bioassay results are nearly uniformly negative for [power-frequency] magnetic-field exposures enhancing leukemia and weaken the possible epidemiological association between [power-frequency] magnetic-field exposures and leukemia in humans as suggested by epidemiological data."

K11) LE Anderson, JE Morris et al: Effects of 50- or 60-Hertz, 100 microT magnetic field exposure in the DMBA mammary cancer model in Sprague-Dawley rats: Possible explanations for different results from two laboratories. Environ Health Perspect 108:797-802, 2000.
- A comparison of the breast cancer promotion studies of Löscher with the studies that could not replicate that work. The authors conclude that while there are many differences in the experimental design, none are obvious explanations for the difference in results. According to the authors, these differences include: "different sub-strains of Sprague-Dawley rats, different sources for diet and DMBA, differences in environmental conditions, and differences in MF exposure metrics". The authors argue that "the issue requires further study".

L0) GS Butrous et al: The effect of power frequency high intensity electric fields on implanted cardiac pacemakers PACE 6:12821292, 1983.
- An analysis of pacemaker function in patients exposed to 50-Hz electric fields. Some units showed irregular function at fields as low as 5,000 V/m, although most units worked well at levels as high as 20,000 V/m. Under a high voltage power line, fields could be as high at 10,000 V/m.

L1) SJ Popock et al: Statistical problems in the reporting of clinical trials. New Eng J Med 317:426-432, 1987.
- A discussion and analysis of statistical issues in clinical trials, including multiple end points issues, subgroup analysis and selection of results for the summary.

L2) EM Silberhorn et al: Carcinogenicity of polyhalogenated biphenyls: PCBs and PBBs. Crit Rev Toxicol 20:440-496, 1990.
- Most experimental evidence supports the view that PCB formulations are not genotoxic or mutagenic, and are not initiating agents. PCB mixtures are tumor promoters in both rats and mice. Epidemiological studies are few and small, but suggest that PCBs may increase the risk of liver cancer.

L3) MG Morgan: Expose treatment confounds understanding of a serious public-health issue. Sci Amer 262:118-123, April 1990.
- Review of "Currents of Death" by P Brodeur . "Brodeur tends to impute bad faith and an effort to cover up to any individual or institution that disagrees with his point of view. Reporting on very complex science, he cites findings selectively... Currents of Death deliberately oversimplifies and misrepresents the complexity of the scientific process and the evidence it has produced. The book cites portions of this evidence in a highly selective manner..."

L4) RG Stevens et al: Electric power, pineal function, and the risk of breast cancer. FASEB J 6:853-860, 1992.
- Presentation of the EMF-melatonin-breast cancer hypothesis.

L5) H Kung and CF Seagle: Impact of power transmission lines on property values: A case study. Appraisal J 60:413-418, 1992.
- Survey of homeowners who lived along transmission lines. None "had any knowledge of possible evidence connecting power transmission lines to health risks"; but 87% said that if they had known of potential health risks, it would have adversely affected the price they were willing to pay. The values of comparable houses adjacent to, and not adjacent to, the power lines were found to be similar.

L6) K Victorin: Review of the genotoxicity of ozone. Mutat Res 277:221-238, 1992.
- Ozone is genotoxic to mammalian cells in culture. Ozone produces chromosome aberrations in lymphocytes from hamsters but from mice, and does not cause SCEs. Evidence for whole animal carcinogenicity is limited to lung adenomas in one strain of mice.

L7) HI Morrison et al: Herbicides and cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 84:1866-1874, 1992.
- Review of the literature shows some weak evidence that exposure to phenoxy herbicides increases the incidence of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, and possibly soft-tissue sarcomas. Evidence supporting an association between herbicides and leukemia is weak, and is limited to a single study [D3]. The available evidence does not support any association of herbicide exposure with brain cancer.

L8) DE Martin: A highlight summary of the impact of electrical transmission lines on improved real estate values. EEI EMF Taskforce Meeting, Seattle, April, 1993.
- A utility study in Kansas City found no sale price or rental fee evidence for impacts of transmission lines on commercial property, apartment complexes, or single-family developments. However, a substantial fraction of the residential owners thought that future prices would be impacted.

L9) High-voltage overhead lines and the potential risk of cancer in children. Press Release, 27-August-1993, Danish Ministry of Health.
- "Neither the latest nor previous scientific research documents that, for dwellings near the high-voltage plants of the power supply, a magnetic field of 50-Hz would be carcinogenic in children... There are no scientific grounds for fixing the limits of magnetic field exposure... there are no current grounds for considering a minimum distance between existing high-voltage overhead lines and dwellings"

L10) PS Astridge et al: The response of implanted dual chamber pacemakers to 50 Hz extraneous electrical interference. PACE 16:1966-1974, 1993.
- Patients with pacemakers were exposed to 50-Hz currents of 0-600 microA. Unipolar mode pacemakers were more subject to interference than bipolar mode pacemakers. "use of bipolar mode protects the patient from electrical interference in all but the most extreme environmental conditions, such as power generation stations. However, in unipolar mode inappropriate behavior occurs at interference levels that may be encountered in every day life"

L11) DL Hayes and RE Vlietstra: Pacemaker malfunction. Ann Intern Med 119:828-835, 1993.
- Review of causes of pacemaker malfunction, including environmental sources of electromagnetic interference. "Permanent damage to implanted pacemakers by electrical equipment normally encountered at home or at work has not been reported and is unlikely. The most frequent occurrence is temporary interference... Potentially significant restrictions exist for a small subset of patients. Each circumstance is different and involves the mutual decision of the implanting physician and the patient. In patients who work in environments with equipment capable of causing significant electromagnetic interference -- for example heavy motors... or arc welding -- temporary interference with pacemaker activity can result in pacemaker inhibition"

L12) Magnetic fields and potential health risks based on what we know in May 1994, National Electricity Safety Board, Stockholm, (1994).
- "Our current knowledge about how magnetic fields affect humans is not sufficient. We therefore do not have sufficient grounds to determine limit values. But the suspicions of a connection between magnetic fields and cancer are such that we recommend a certain caution. Therefore... if such can be done within reasonable costs, strive to design and/or place new power lines and electrical facilities so that magnetic fields are limited... In our society we must constantly evaluate how much money we shall invest in health and the environment... As far as we know today, magnetic fields from power lines could cause two cases of childhood leukemia per year [in Sweden]. The costs to eliminate those eventual cases are very large. In such a situation, it can be of greater urgency to reduce the number of cases of cancer caused by radon... or to reduce the number of traffic accidents..."

L13) D G Altman et al: Dangers of using "optimal" cutpoints in the evaluation of prognostic factors. J Natl Cancer Inst 86:829-835, 1994.
- The search for a cut-point that will maximize differences may lead to major increases in false positives. "We recommend that authors... use pre-specified cut-points... If possible the choice of cut-points should be guided by biological reasoning... We think that the so-called 'optimal' cut-point approach should not be used. If it is used, the P value must be corrected"

L14) HP Beck-Bornholdt and HH Dubben: Potential pitfalls in the use of p-values and in interpretation of significance levels. Radiother Oncol 33:171-176, 1994.
- "In multi-parameter analysis of clinical data the likelihood of obtaining significant results, just by chance, increases considerably with the overall number of testes performed. This can be compensated by adjusting p-values".

L15) S Greenland: A critical look at some popular meta-analytic methods. Amer J Epidem 140:290-296, 1994.
- Review of modern meta-analysis techniques, with a discussion of the potential problems and biases. "Meta-analysis is essential for obtaining reproducible summaries of study results and valuable for discovering patterns... A good meta-analysis will highlight and delineate the subjective components of these processes and vigorously search for heterogeneity. Unfortunately, these objectives are not always met..."

L16) LJ Kinlen: Epidemiological evidence for an infective basis in childhood leukaemia. Br J Cancer 71:1-5, 1995.
- Brief review of the evidence for an infective basis of childhood leukemia.

L17) DA Savitz and AF Olsham: Multiple comparisons and related issues on the interpretations of epidemiologic data. Amer J Epidem 142:904-908, 1995.
- The argument is made that the existence of multiple comparisons and post-hoc hypothesis does not necessarily affect the statistical significance of epidemiologic studies. The authors argue that "a concern about multiple comparisons in unwarranted...'" and that "How and when the idea for collecting and analyzing data occurred is irrelevant to assessing the validity of the product...". However, the authors also note that: "Statistical considerations aside, asking a study to yield any associations ('Is something going on in the data?') is a poor research strategy".

L18) E Farber: Cell proliferation as a major risk factor for cancer: A concept of doubtful validity. Cancer Res 55:3759-3762, 1995.
- "It is now being proposed that the presence of cell proliferation by itself or the stimulation of cell proliferation in a quiescent tissue... should in and of themselves major concerns for cancer development... However, whether cell proliferation, per se, is a risk factor for the long process of cancer development has not been demonstrated... "

L19) The Criteria Group for Physical Risk Factors: Magnetic fields and Cancer - a criteria document, Sweden, 1995.
- "This document summarizes certain issues concerning whether scientific support exists for developing limits on exposure for occupational exposure to low frequency magnetic fields... There is lack of knowledge concerning the relevant exposure measure... An overall evaluation of both animal and experimental studies is that occupational exposure could possibly be a human carcinogen. There is, however, a lack of data to determine whether a dose-response relationship exists... The scientific database is insufficient to develop limits of exposures"

L20) Axelson O: Cancer risks from exposure to radon in homes. Environ Health Perspec 103 (Suppl 2):37-43, 1995.
- "Exposure to radon and its decay products in mines is a well recognized risk of lung cancer in miners... Indoor radon became a concern in the 1970s... [but] exposure assessment remains a difficult and uncertain issue in these studies, most of which indicate a lung cancer risk from indoor radon... More recently there are also some studies... suggesting other cancers also to be related to indoor radon, especially leukemia, kidney cancer, and malignant melanoma, and some other cancers as well. The data are less consistent and much more uncertain than for indoor radon and lung cancer, however; and there is no clear support from studies of miners in this respect."

L21) ER Adair: Electrophobia. IEEE Eng Med Biol 15(Jul/Aug):91-101, 1996.
- A brief history of the fear of electricity, with a discussion of what role scientists could and/or should have in combating this fear. "Public ignorance of basic science and technology hampers any attempt to explain, in lay terms, how electromagnetic energy interact with the human body".

L22) WA Fannucchi: Regulatory policy for EMF. IEEE Eng Med Biol 15(Jul/Aug):71-76, 1996.
- A discussion of the power line-cancer issue from the perspective of a regulator. "For policy makers, the best outcome to this issue would be for the scientific community to eventually reach a clear consensus and conclude that exposure to power line EMF is not a risk to human health. Even a conclusion that there are real health effects would be something of a relief. At least we might have a clear understanding of the true nature of the problem..."

L23) MA Warnquist et al: The role of science in EMF litigation. IEEE Eng Med Biol 15(Jul/Aug):61-70, 1996.
- A review of the various types of "EMF litigation", including a discussion of the issues raised in each and the current (as of early 1996) state of the litigation.

L24) RD Miller: Unfounded fears: The great power-line cover-up exposed. IEEE Eng Med Biol Jan/Feb:116-120 and Mar/Apr:106-115, 1996.
- A critical review of Brodeur's 1993 book, "The Great Powerline Cover-up". "Mr. Brodeur oversimplifies the science of health effects of power-frequency fields in order to support his thesis, with errors and misrepresentations throughout the text... He has failed to thoroughly research his topic. The book reveals a lack of understanding of epidemiology, even though the author's thesis is strongly dependent on epidemiological data... Such one-sided presentations as Mr. Brodeur makes in his book do not truly serve the public in revealing the actual probability of hazard. Rather they mislead and inflame, wasting resources and producing only controversy"

L25) S Liden: "Sensitivity to electricity" - a new environmental epidemic. Allergy 51:519-524, 1996.
- A review of the history and peer-reviewed literature on "sensitivity of electricity". The author considers that the syndrome is most likely a psychosomatic disease, and provides a history of previous such syndromes.

L26) BE Butterworth et al: A strategy for establishing mode of action of chemical carcinogens as a guide for approaches to risk assessments. Cancer Letters 93:129-146, 1995.
- Up-to-date discussion of genotoxic vs non-genotoxic (epigenetic) carcinogens, including discussion of the fact that non-genotoxic carcinogen often have threshold for their effects.

L27) Swedish Occupational Health and Safety Administration: Low-frequency electrical and magnetic fields - the precautionary principle for national authorities - guidance for decision-makers, Swedish Occupational Health and Science Administration, (1996).
- "The [Swedish] national authorities join in recommending the following precautionary principle: If measures generally reducing exposure can be taken at reasonable expense and with reasonable consequences in all other respects, an effort should be made to reduce fields radically deviating from what could be deemed normal in the environment concerned."

L28) GM Williams et al: Epigenetic carcinogens: evaluation and risk assessment. Exper Toxicol Pathol 48:189-195, 1996.
- "Many chemicals that produce tumors in experimental animals have been show no act by epigenetic mechanisms that do not involve an attack by the chemical on DNA... Such indirect mechanisms require prolonged exposures to high levels of chemicals for the production of tumors. For chemicals that are carcinogenic in this manner, the cancer mechanism would not be operative below a threshold... also, in contrast to DNA-reactive mechanisms, epigenetic effects may be unique to the rodent species used for testing."

L29) I Langmuir: Pathological science. Physics Today October 1989:36-48, 1989.
- In a now famous talk given in 1953, Nobel-laureate Irving Langmuir outlined the following symptoms of what he termed "pathological science":
a) The maximum effect that is observed is produced by a causative agent of barely detectable intensity.
b) The magnitude of the effect is substantially independent of the intensity of the cause.
c) The effect is of a magnitude that remains close to the limit of detectability or, many measurements are necessary because of the very low statistical significance of the results.
d) There are claims of great accuracy.
e) Fantastic theories contrary to experience are suggested.
f) Criticisms are met by excuses thought up on the spur of the moment.
g) The ratio of supporters to critics rises to somewhere near 50% and then falls gradually to oblivion.

L30) Y Hamnerius et al: Double-blind provocation study of hypersensitivity reactions associated with exposure to electromagnetic fields from VDUs. R Swed Acad Sci Rep 2:67-72, 1997.
- People claiming hypersensitivity to electric and magnetic fields from VDTs were tested to see if they could detect the fields. None of 30 could detect the fields at a rate better than expected from random chance.

L31) JR Ashley: The safety of overhead power lines, IEEE Eng Med Biol 16(Jan/Feb):25-28, 1997.
- "...there is a proven public health risk associated with living near overhead, three-phase, 50 or 60 Hz power lines... The true electrical explanation of why living close to overhead three-phase power lines at least doubles the risk of childhood leukemia is more likely to be the current density induced by the electric field near the power line [than the magnetic field]".

L32) D Loomis, SR Browning et al: Cancer mortality among electric utility workers exposed to polychlorinated biphenyls, Occup Environ Med 54:720-728, 1997.
- Occupational PCB exposure is weakly associated with an increase in malignant melanoma, but no increase in overall cancer, brain cancer, leukemia, lymphoma or liver cancer was found.

L33) JH Lubin et al: Case-control study of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia and residential radon exposure. J Natl Cancer Inst 90:294-300, 1998.
- Case-control study of radon exposure and childhood leukemia finds no association.

L34) D Vergano: EMF researcher made up data, ORI says. Science 285:23-25, 1999.
- Robert Liburdy, a biologist known for his work in the biological effects of power-frequency fields pleaded "no contest" to the claim by the US Office of Research Integrity that he had "engaged in scientific misconduct... by intentionally falsifying and fabricating data and claims" in two 1992 papers. Liburdy further agreed to ask the journals involved to retract some of the data. The papers in question presented data suggesting that power-frequency fields could affect calcium ion flux across cell membranes.
See also L35.

L35) RP Liburdy: Calcium and EMFs: Graphing the data. Science 285:337, 1999.
- Robert Liburdy's letter to Science in response to the data fabrication charges leveled by the US Office of Research Integrity (see L34).

L36) R Doll: The Seascale cluster: a probable explanation. Br J Cancer 81:3-5, 1999.
- "The time may have come when Kinlen's hypothesis of population mixing as a cause of childhood leukemia can be regarded as established. There remains the biological problem of identifying the causative agent..." See L16.

L37) HO Dickinson and L Parker: Quantifying the effect of population mixing on childhood leukaemia risk: the Seascale cluster. Br J Cancer 81:144-151, 1999.
- The incidence of acute lymphoblastic leukemia was significantly elevated among children born in the areas with the highest levels of population mixing.

L38) J. Silny: Electrical hypersensitivity in humans - Fact or fiction? Zbl Hyg Umweltmed 202:219-233, 1999.
- "Electrical hypersensitivity cannot be explained by means of known and validated influence mechanisms of electromagnetic fields in humans" The author also notes that the prevalence of the syndrome varies by a factor of 1000 among countries have comparable fields and exposure situations, and that both symptoms and the types of fields alleged to cause the symptoms vary greatly from country to country.

L39) Office of Research Integrity: Pioneering data on EMF effects was falsified and fabricated. ORI Newsletter 7(4):1-7, 1999.
- "First, this is not a case involving a matter of data interpretation or graphical techniques... The evidence demonstrates that Dr. Liburdy intentionally fabricated or falsified data presented in the figures" "Second, Dr. Liburdy's own experts did not review all the data..." "Three, ORI believes the data falsifications in these three figures undermine the validity of the scientific conclusions in these two papers"

L40) U Kaletsch, P Kaatsch et al: Childhood cancer and residential radon exposure -- results of a population based case-control study in Lower Saxony (Germany). Radiat Environ Biophys 38:211-215, 1999.
- Case-control study of radon and childhood cancer found no significant association for either leukemia or brain cancer.

L41) M Steinbuch, CR Weinberg et al: Indoor residential radon exposure and risk of childhood acute myeloid leukaemia. Br J Cancer 81:900-906, 1999.
- Case-control study of residential radon and leukemia finds no significant association.

L42) C Graham, MR Cook et al: Human exposure to 60-Hz magnetic fields: neurophysiological effects, Int J Psychophysiol 33:169-175, 1999.
- Human volunteers (new and women) exposed to 60-Hz fields for 45 min at 14 or 28 microT showed no neurophysiological effects, and a lack of sensitivity to exposure. According to the authors, the results "do not support the mechanistic hypothesis that the transmission of sensory information to appropriate cortical centers is delayed or distorted by exposure to power-frequency magnetic fields at occupational intensities."

L43) C Graham and MR Cook: Human sleep in 60 Hz magnetic fields, Bioelectromag 0:277-283, 1999.
- Human volunteers were exposed overnight to 60 Hz fields at 28 microT. Intermittent exposure decreased sleep time, but continuous exposure had no effect.

L44) C Graham, A Sastre et al: Heart rate variability and physiological arousal in men exposed to 60 Hz magnetic fields. Bioelectromag 21:480-482, 2000.
- Human volunteers were exposed to a 28 microT 60-Hz field for 8 hours at night. No changes in heart rate variability were observed.

L45) C Graham, A Sastre et al: Exposure to strong ELF magnetic fields does not alter cardiac autonomic control mechanisms. Bioelectromag 21:413-421, 2000.
- Human volunteers were exposed at 127 microT continuous or intermittent 60-Hz fields for 8 hours at night. No changes in heart rate variability were observed.

L46) JP McLaughlin, G Gath: Radon progeny activities in the vicinity of high voltage power lines. Radiat Protec Dosim 82:257-262, 1999.
- Measurements showed the absence of an increase in radon daughters along a 400 kV powerline.

L47) J Swanson, D Jeffers: Possible mechanisms by which electric fields from power lines might affect airborne particles harmful to health. J Radiol Prot 19:213-229, 1999.
- According to the authors, there are both theoretical considerations and experimental evidence that none of the mechanisms postulated by Henshaw and Fews should lead to any adverse health effect, primarily because "the effects produced are very small and are swamped by air currents or by gravity, and because people spend limited time in the relevant conditions." The authors go on to point out that "the experimental evidence also weighs against any adverse health effects...[and that] even if significant health effects were produced, they would be different from those suggested by existing epidemiology."

L48) TW Dawson, MA Stuchly et al: Pacemaker interference and low-frequency electric induction in humans by external fields and electrodes. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 47:1211-1218, 2000.
- Calculations indicate the interference with a cardiac pacemaker could occur for 60-Hz fields as low as 5.7 kV/m.

M1) RC Petersen: Radiofrequency/microwave protection guides. Health Phys 61:59-67, 1991.
- A summary of RF/MW protection guidelines.

M2) International Commission on Radiation Protection: Recommendations. Report 60, New York, Pergamon Press, 1991.
- Current recommendations for occupational and public protection standards for ionizing radiation.

M3) AS Duchene et al: IRPA guidelines on protection against non-ionizing radiation. Pergamon Press, New York, 1991.
- Current recommendations for occupational and public protection standards for non-ionizing EM sources.

M4) Restriction on human exposures to static and time varying EM fields and radiation. Documents of the NRPB 4(5): 1-69, 1993.
- Exposure limits for power-frequency fields, as well as static fields and MW/RF frequencies; the standards apply to both residential and occupational exposure. For 60-Hz the limits recommended are 10 kV/m for the electric field and 1,330 microT for the magnetic field.

M5) Sub-radiofrequency (30 kHz and below) magnetic fields, In: Documentation of the threshold limit values, ACGIH, pp. 55-64, 1994.
- For 60-Hz fields the standard is 100 microT for pacemaker users and 1,000 microT for everyone else, this standard is applied only to occupational settings. Similar documentation is available for other frequencies.

M6) International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection: Guidelines for limiting exposure to time-varying electric, magnetic, and electromagnetic fields (up to 300 GHz). Health Phys 74:494-522, 1998.
- For the general public the exposure standard is 100 microT at 50 Hz and 84 microT at 60 Hz. For occupational exposure the standard in 500 microT at 50 Hz and 420 microT at 60 Hz.

M7) MH Repacholi et al: Guidelines on limits of exposure to static magnetic fields. Health Phys 66:100-106, 1994.
- ICNIRP guidelines are based on keeping induced currents below 100 mA/m-sq. Occupational guideline is that continuous occupational exposure should be limited to a time weighted value that does not exceed 200 milliT. Continuous exposure of the general public should not exceed 40 milliT. For people with cardiac pacemakers, ferromagnetic implants and implanted electronic devices exposures should be kept below 500 microT.

M8) WH Bailey et al: Summary and evaluation of guidelines for occupational exposure to power frequency electric and magnetic fields. Health Phys 73:433-453, 1997.
- Review of major US and international guidelines for limiting exposure to ELF fields (greater than 0 Hz through 30 KHz). The review focuses on the biological basis for the guidelines, and outlines unresolved and/or ambiguous scientific and compliance issues.

• JE Moulder and KR Foster: Biological effects of power-frequency fields as they relate to carcinogenesis. Proc Soc Exp Med Biol 209:309-324, 1995.
• JE Moulder: Biological studies of power-frequency fields and carcinogenesis. IEEE Eng Med Biol 15 (July/Aug):31-49, 1996.
• KR Foster, LS Erdreich, JE Moulder: Weak electromagnetic fields and cancer in the context of risk assessment. Proc IEEE 85:733-746, 1997.
• JE Moulder: Power-frequency fields and cancer. Crit Rev Biomed Engineering 26:1-116, 1998.
• JE Moulder: Une approache biomédicale: le point de vue d'un chercheur en cancérologie. In: J Lambrozo, I Le Bis (Eds), Champs Électriques et Magnétique de Très Basse Fréquency: Electricité de France, 1998.
• JE Moulder KR Foster: Is there a link between exposure to power-frequency electric fields and cancer? IEEE Eng Med Biol 18(2):109-116, 1999.
• JE Moulder: The Electric and Magnetic Fields Research and Public Information Dissemination (EMF-RAPID) Program. Radiat Res 153:613-616, 2000.
• JE Moulder: The controversy over powerlines and cancer, III Jornadas sobre Líneas Eléctricas y Medio Ambiente, Red Eléctrica de España, Madrid, 2000, pp. 159-168.