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The Mystery of Cloud Electrification

Robert A. Black and John Hallett

Full Text Sections
Introduction
Clouds from the Ground Up
Supercooling
How Much Charge is Needed?
More Complicated Geometries
Hurricane Dynamics
Vapor and Global Radiation Balance
Bibliography

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November-December 1998

Bibliography

Anthes, R. A. 1982. Tropical cyclones: their evolution, structure, and effects. Meteorological Monographs 19. American Meteorological Society.

Black, M. L., R. W. Burpee and F. D. Marks, Jr. 1996. Vertical motion characteristics of tropical cyclones determined with airborne Doppler radar velocities. Journal of the Atmospheric Science 53:1887-1909.

Black, R. A., and J. Hallett. In press. On the electrification of the hurricane. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences.

Black, R. A., and J. Hallett. 1986. Observations of the distribution of ice in hurricanes. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 43:802-822.

Black, R. A., H. B. Bluestein and M. L. Black. 1994. Unusually strong vertical motions in a Caribbean hurricane. Monographs of Weather Reviews 122:2772-2739.

Bringi, V. N., D. A. Burroughs and S. M. Menon. 1991. Multiparameter radar and aircraft study of raindrop spectral evolution in warm-based clouds. Journal of Applied Meteorology 30:853-880.

Emmanuel, K. A. 1988. Toward a general theory of hurricanes. American Scientist 76:370-379.

Hallett, J., and S. C. Mossop. 1974. Production of secondary ice particles during the riming process. Nature 249:26-28.

Hallett, J. 1984. How snow crystals grow. American Scientist 72:582-589.

Houze, R. A. 1994. Cloud Dynamics. Academic Press. (Particularly Chapter 12.)

Lynos, W. A., and C. S. Keen. 1994. Observations of lightning in convective supercells within tropical storms and hurricanes. Monthly Weather Review 122:1897-1916.

Molinari, J. P., and V. Idone. In press. Convective structure of hurricanes as revealed by lightning locations. Monthly Weather Review.

Reynolds, S. E, M. Brook and M. F. Gourley. 1957. Thunderstorm charge separation. Journal of Meteorology 14:426-436.

Samsury, C. E., and R. E. Orville. 1994. Cloud-to-ground lightning in tropical cyclones: A study of Hurricanes Hugo (1989) and Jerry (1989). Monthly Weather Review 122:1887-1896.

Saunders, C. P. R., W. D. Keith and R. P. Mitzeva. 1991. The influence of liquid water on thunderstorm charging. Journal of Geophysical Research 96:11,007-11,017.

Saunders, C. P. R., and I. M. Brooks. 1992. The effects of high liquid water content on thunderstorm charging. Journal of Geophysical Research 97:14,671-14,676.

Saunders, C. P. R., and S. L. Peck. 1998. Laboratory studies of the influence of rime accretion rate on charge transfer during crystal/graupel collisions. Journal of Geophysical Research 103(D12):13,949-13,956.

Takahasi, T. 1978. Riming electrification as a charge generation mechanism in thunderstorms. Journal of Atmospheric Science 35:1536-1548.

Uman, M. A. 1984. Lightning. Dover Publications: New York.

Uman, M. A. 1987. The Lightning Discharge International Geophysical Series, 39. Academic Press.

Williams, E. R. 1989. The tripole structure of thunderstorms. Journal of Geophysical Research 94:13,151-13,167.

Willis, P. T., J. Hallett, R. A. Black and W. Hendricks. 1994. An aircraft study of rapid precipitation development and electrification in a growing convective cloud. Atmospheric Research 33:1-24.


Acknowledgments

The authors extend their thanks to all the people at NOAA/AOML and NOAA/AOC who have aided us in our research over the years. Hallett’s work has been supported by the the Physical Meteorology Program of the National Science Foundation, Washington, D.C.

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